













I 

A NEW SYSTEM ..... / 

OF 

MODERN GEOGRAPHY 



A GENERAL DESCRIPTION 

/ > 

* j • > 'i ) . 

OF THE 

MOST REMARKABLE COUNTRIES THROUGHOUT 
THE KNOWN WORLD ; 

THEIR RESPECTIVE SITUATIONS, EXTENTS^ DIVISIONS, CITIES-, 
RIVERS, MOUNTAINS,-SOILS, AND PRODUCTIONS; THEIR 
COMMERCE, MANNERS, CUSTOMS, LAWS, AND RELIGION J 

TOGETHER WITH 

THEIR PRINCIPAL HISTORICAL EVENTS, 

AND 

POLITICAL IMPORTANCE IN THE GREAT COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS .* 


COMPILED 


FROM THE MOST MODERN SYSTEMS OF GEOGRAPHY, 
AND THE LATEST VOYAGES AND TRAVELS, 

AND 

CONTAINING MANY IMPORTANT ADDITIONS TO THE GEOGRAPHY 
OF THE UNITED STATES THAT HAVE NEVER APPEARED 
IN ANY OTHER WORK OF THE KIND. 

ILLUSTRATED WITH EIGHT MAPS, 

Comprising the latest discoveries, and engraved by the first American ArtistS. 


BY BENJAMIN DAVIES. 

- 421 2 7 


PHILADELPHIA: 

PUBLISHED BY JACOB JOHNSON & Co. 

NO. I47, MARKET-STREET. 


1805 














9 • • 

[pistrict of Pennsylvania , to wit : 

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the fourth day of September in 
the Twenty-ninth year of the Independence of the United States of Ame¬ 
rica, A. D. 1804. Jacob Johnson of the said District has deposited in 
this Office the Title of a Book the right whereof he claims as Pro¬ 
prietor in the words following to wit : 

ft A New System of Modern Geography, or a General Description oi 
»« the most remarkable countries throughout the known world. Their 
« respective situations, extents, divisions, cities, rivers, mountains, 
t> soils* and productions; their commerce, manners, customs, laws, and 
tt religion; together Avith their principal historical events, and political 
ft importance in the great commonwealth of nations. Compiled trom the 
ft most modern systems of Geography, and the latest Voyages and 1 ra- 
tt vels, and containing many important additions to the Geography oi 
ft the United States that have never appeared in any other work of the 
ft kind. Illustrated with eight Maps, comprising the latest discoveries, 
a and engraved by the first American Artists. By Benjamin Davies.” 

In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, intitu. 
led "An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies 
of Maps, Charts, and Books to the authors and proprietors of such copies 
during the times therein mentioned.” And also to the Act entitled 
ft An Act supplementary to an Act entitled " An Act for the encourage¬ 
ment of learning by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books to 
the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein men¬ 
tioned,” and extending the benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, en¬ 
graving, and etching, historical and other prints. 

D. CALDWELL, 

Clark of the District 
of Pennsylvania. 


By tranaier 
U JJ 1907 


PREFACE. 


1 O recommend the study of Geography; or 
a knowledge of the terraqueous globe, to the inquisi¬ 
tive and enlightened citizens of the United States 
would be trite and useless. What has been sanctioned 
by the approval of literary men in every other coun¬ 
try, has in this deservedly become the subject of 
general cultivation. All that seems to be required 
of the Editor, is briefly to premise a few remarks on 
the treatise now offered to the public, with the reasons 
that induced him to undertake the compilation. 

Observing a frequent demand in the book-shops for 
a system of Geography, more instructive and enter¬ 
taining than the dry epitomes used in the schools, as 
elementary books, and yet less voluminous and expen¬ 
sive than Pinkerton’s, Guthrie’s, or Walker’s Geogra¬ 
phical Grammars, the Editor thought that such a trea¬ 
tise might be compiled by judicious extracts from 
these, with the help of Modern Travels and Voyages. 
Something more too might be introduced, in describ¬ 
ing our own country, its moral and physical state, 
than is to be found in those volumes, without en¬ 
croaching on the right, or swelling the treatise to the 
size, of Morse’s American Geography. 

To accomplish this intention Pinkerton’s abridge¬ 
ment has been recurred to, principally, in detailing the 
Geography of foreign countries *, with the introduction 
of a few interesting articles which more recent publica- 






IV 


PREFACE. 


tions have furnished. This seemed necessary to ac¬ 
commodate the work to the existing state of Europe 
and Asia, thofe leading parts of the system with which 
we now entertain fuch frequent commercial inter¬ 
course. In arranging the materials before us, the per¬ 
spicuous order of Pinkerton has been adhered to, as 
closely as the nature of our task would permit. 

The freedom that has been indulged, in discri¬ 
minating the various constitutions of the American 
states, and the characters of their inhabitants, will 
perhaps be esteemed rather assuming by some readers ; 
but as truth and justice has been uniformly our rule, 
as well as independence of judgment, we presume 
the number will be but fmall, and that thofe few will 
perhaps see caufe to change their opinions. But 
should any material errors be discovered by readers 
which they will be so obliging as to communicate, in 
the topography or constitutions of any of the states, 
or the character of the people, they shall be rectified 
in the next impression of the work, and the commu¬ 
nication wall be accepted with grateful sensibility. 

In compliance with our engagements to the sub¬ 
scribers, the volume wall be preceded by an Alphabeti¬ 
cal Catalogue of the most common names of Ancient 
Geography, explained by the modern appellations of 
the same places—wdiich can hardly fail to be accepta¬ 
ble to the readers of ancient history, as it is not to be 
met with in any modern system that we have feen. 

Those of our subscribers who have been displeased 
with the delay that has occurred in this publication, 
will, we hope, be disposed to pardon us, when they 
are informed that it has been occasioned, in a great 
measure, by the increased size of the work; which 
contains at least one hundred and fifty pages more 
than was promised or expected when our Prospectus 
was published. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Introduction, p. i.— The figure and relative position 
of the Earth—of the Terrestrial Globe.—Problems 
performed on the Globe.—Divisions of the surface of 
the Earth.—Of Maps.—Lengths of Miles in different 
countries. 

Europe, general view of p. 26.-—England and Wales, 
30— Scotland) 57— Ireland, 70— France , 7 9— Ne¬ 
therlands, 93 —Russia in Europe, 98 —Russian 
isles, 108— Austrian, dominions, 109— Prussia, 123 
— Spain, 131 —Spanish isles, 144 —Turkey in 
Europe, 145 —Turkish isles, 155— Holland , 136 
— Denmark, 164 —Danish isles, 174,— Sweden, 

17 6—Swedish isles, 185— Portugal, 186— Sauis- 
serland, 192 —German States, 201 —German States 
on the north of the Mayn, 205 —Ditto on the 
south of the Mayn, 21 o— Italy, general description of 
213 —Southern part of Italy, 217 —-Central part of 
Italy, 2 19 —Northern part of Italy, 221. 

Asia, general view of, 224 — Linneean table of primeval 
nations and languages, 22 5 —Turkey in Asia, 228— 
Islands belonging to Asiatic Turkey, 236 —Russian 
empire in Asia, 239 —Islands belonging to Asiatic 
Russia, 249 —Chinese empire, 250 —China proper, 
251 —Chinese islands, 261 — Chinese Tatary, 262 — 
Island of Sagalian or Tchoka, 2 65— Tibet, 26*]*—Ja¬ 
pan, 273 —Airman empire, comprising Ava and Pe¬ 
gu, 283 —Malaya or Malacca, 291— Siam, 293— 
Other states of exterior India, 297— Hindostan, 300 
—British possessions and allies, 302 —Maratta states, 
303— Seiks, ib.—Gangetic Hindostan, or the countries' 



vi 


CONTENTS, 


on the Ganges, 3 1 q—Sindetic Hindostan, or the coun¬ 
tries on the Indus, 321— Central Hindostan, or the 
middle provinces, 323 —Southern division of Hindos- 
tan, 324— Island of Ceylon, 327- - Persia, 330 ---In¬ 
dependent T’atary, 346— Arabia, 355 —Asiatic isles, 
3 46— Australasia, comprising New Guinea, New- 
Britain and New Ireland, wzV/j the Solomon isles, iV<?w 
Caledonia and the New Hebrides, Afcw Zealand and 
Van Diemen's land, 373— Polynesia y comprising the 
Pelew islands, Ladrones, Carolines, Sandwich islands, 
Marquesas, Society and Friendly islands, 382.— 
America, getieral view of 390— North America, 
397-** Greenland) 404— Hudson's bay, 406— Labra¬ 
dor, 407 —Central parts, 408 —Western coast, 410 
—British possessions, 41 I — Canada, 41 2— 
Brunswick, 417— Nova Scotia, 418— Cape Breton, 
419— Newfoundland, 420— Bermudas, 421 — United 
States of America, 423—A 7 <?w Hampshire, 442— 
T ermont, 449— Massachusetts, including Main, 457 
Rhode Island, 467— Connecticut, 474—A^w York, 
481—A 7 cw Jersey, 491— Pennsylvania, 4$%*—De¬ 
laware, 511— Maryland, 516— Virgmia, 522_ 

North Carolina, $31—South Carolina, 537—GW- 
545 — Kentucky, 55 I— Tennessee, 557—O/w, 
$61—Mississippi territory, 564— Lidiana, 566— 
Louisiana, 567 —Spanish Dominions in North Ame¬ 
rica, 571 —American Islands, or West Indies, includ¬ 
ing Cuba, Saint Domingo, Jamaica, Porto Rico, Car* 
ribbee islands, and the Bahama or Lucayos islands, 
581— South America, 587— Spanish Dominions, 
591— •Portuguefe, $9$—French, 597 —Dutch, 598 
Islands belongwg to South America, 599* 


THE 


Common Names of Ancient Geography , 

Explained by the synonymous modern names, an4 
arranged in alphabetical order. 


A. 

Acheron , a river in Albania, now called Velechi. 

Actium , capital of Livadia, now called Figala. 

Acroceraunes, mountains in Albania, now mount Chimefa. 

Adriatic Sea, now gulf of Venice. 

Albion, now England. 

Allemania, now Franconia and Suabia. 

Allobroges, now Savoy and Dauphine. 

Ammon , now Barca in Africa. 

Angles, ancient inhabitants of Holstein, the progenitors of the English 
nation. 

Arcadia , now a part of Zaconia in Morea. 

Armorica , now the province of Bretagne in France. 

Armenia Major , now Turcomania, in risia. 

Arbela, a place in Diarbeck, where Alexander routed Darius king of 
Persia. 

Assyria , a part of modern Persia and Diarbeck. 

Athos , a famous mountain of Macedonia, now Monte Santo. 

Atlantis, supposed by some to be America. 

Ausonia, now Terra di Laboro, in Apulia. 

B. 

Babylon, now Bagdad, the capital of Diarbeck. 

Bactriana, now Zagati, or Usbecks, a province on the borders of Persia. 
Baleares, now the islands of Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica. 

Batavia, now Holland. 

Belgium , now Flanders. 

Bithynia, now Becsangil in Natolia. 

Boristhenes, now the river Dnieper, in Russia. 

Bosphorus Thracia, now the straits of Constantinople. 

Byzantium , now Constantinople. 


Vlll 


The Common Names of Ancient Geography. 


Ecetica, part of Spain, now containing Granada, Andalusia, part of Cas¬ 
tile and Estramadura. 

Brigantes, inhabitants of Yorkshire, Lancashire, Durham, Westmoreland 
and Cumberland. (O. E.) 


c. 


Campania , now part of Calabria, in the kingdom of Naples. 

Canna, in the province of Bari in the kingdom of Naples, famous fo* 
the destruction of a Roman army by Hannibal. 

Cantabria , now Biscay and Asturias. 

Ctippadocia, now Amasia, in Natolia. 

Carthago , now ruins, about nine miles from Tunis, in Barbary. 

Caspiana Januce, famous mountain in Persia, near the Caspian sea. 
Caucasus, part of Mount Taurus, between the Black and the Caspian 
seas. 

Chalets, now Negropont, or the capital of that island. 

Cattuellani, people of Buckingham, Bedford, and Hertfordshire. (O. E.) 
Casaraugusta, a town of Spain, now Saragossa. 

Chersonese (Cimbric' now Jutland. 

Chersonese (TauricJ now Crimea. 
deludes, islands of the Archipelago. 

Cilicia , now Caramania, in Natolia. 

Cimbri, the inhabitants of Jutland. 

Complutum , now Alcala de Henares, in Spain. 

Clusium , a town of Tuscany, now in ruins. 

Colchides , now Mingrelia and Georgia, in Asia. 

Corcyrum , now Corfu, an island off the coast of Albania. 

Creta , now Candia, an island, at the entrance of the e &. 



D. 


Dacia, now part of Upper Hungary, of Transylvania, Vallachia and 
Moldavia. 

Delphos, now Castria, in Livadia or Achaia. 

Delos , now Sdilie, an island of the Archipelago. 


E. 


Ecbatana , now Tauris, a large city in Persia. 

Eleusis, now Lespina, a town near the Egean sea, famous for the temple 
of Ceres. r 

Elides, that part of Morea, now called Belvedere. 

Emathia , a part of Macedonia. 

Ethiopia , now Abyssinia, and Nubia. 

Etolia , a part of Livadia, in Greece. 

Etruria now Tuscany. 

Eubaa , now the island of Negropont, in Turkey. 


The Common Names of Ancient Geography. ix 

Euphrates , now Frat, a famous river of Asia, on which once stood the 
city of Babylon. 

Euripus , an arm of the sea, between Negropont and Livadia. 

F. 

Ealerna, a mountain in the kingdom of Naples, now Monte Massico, 
once famous for its grapes. 

G. 

Galatia , now Chiangara, a province of Natolia. 

Gallia , now France and Lombardy, divided into Cisalpine and Transal¬ 
pine, as it Was more or less distant from Rome. 

Gallia Cisalpina , nowLombardy, was divided intoTranspadana and Cispa- 
dana, as it was on one or the other side of the river Po, in respect 
of Rome. Cispadana was called also Togata, on account of the 
toga, or long gown worn by the inhabitants. 

Gallia Transalpina , was likewise divided into two parts, one called 
Comata, on account of the long hair of the inhabitants, comprising 
the Lionese, part of Normandy, the Isle of France, the Orleannois, 
Touraine, Maine, Bretagne, Franche Compte and all its dependen¬ 
cies, Guienne, Gascoigne, Roussillion, Triers, Spire, Worms, Stras- 
burg, Mentz,Toul, Verdun, and all the country between the Sein, 
the Maese, and the Rhine, from Coblentz down to the sea; the 
other called Braccata, on account of the Bracca, a sort of breeches 
worn in that country, comprehending Languedoc, Provence, Dau- 
phine and Savoy. 

Gades, now Cadiz, a city of Spain. 

Garamantes , now Zara, or Nigritia, in Africa. 

Geunabium , now Orleans, a city of France, < 

Getes, people of Moldavia and Valjachia, 

Gnosse , now Candia. 

Getulia , now Bildulgerid in Africa. 

Granicus, now Lazzara, a river of Natolia, famous for a victory obtained 
by Alexander over Darius, near its banks. 

Gracia Magna, now the south part of Italy. 

H. 

Halicarnassus , now Tobia, a city of Caramania, 

Hannonia, no-tf Hainault in Flanders. 

Helicon , now Zagara, a mountain of Livadia, 

Hellespontus , now the straits of Dardanelles- 
Hehetii , the inhabitants of Switzerland. 

Herules , a people in the north of Germany. 

Hesperides , a name given by the Greeks to Italy, and by the Italians to 
Spain. 

Hircania , now Tarabistan, a province of Persia. I 
Hirpini , a people settled in a part of the kingdom of Naples 
Hipalis, now Seville, a town of Spain. 


X 


Yhe Common Names of Ancient Geography • 


I. 


Iberia, now Spain. 

Idumea, a small country between Judea, Egypt, and Arabia. 

Illyria, now Sclavonia, Dalmatia, and Croatia. 

Imubria , now part of Lombardy, towards Como. 

Ionian sea, washes the western shore of Greece up to the gulf of Venice. 
Itrurea, a small country, along the river Jordan, opposite Tyrus. 

Ittius portus , now Boulogne, a sea port of France, the rendezvous of gun¬ 
boats intended for invasion of England. 


L. 

lacedemon, or Sparta, now Misitra, a city of Morea. 

Laconia , the country of which Sparta was the capital. 

Laodicea, now Licha, or Ladikia in Syria, about seven leagues from 
Antioch. 

Latium, now Campania di Roma. 

Laurentum , now San Lorenzo, in Campania di Roma. 

Lemnos, now Stalimene,? • t , «■ , . , . , 

L'd*,, ... Mitilene, l “ lands of the Arch.pdago. 

Lybia, now Nigritia and Barca. 

Liburnia, a part of Dalmatia and Croatia. 

Licaonia, now the district of Cogni in Natolia. 

Liguria, now the Republic of Genoa. 

Locrin , the lake of Averno, in the kingdom of Naples. 

Lotharingia, the duchy of Lorrain. 

Lucania , now the Basilicate, in the kingdom of Naples. 

Lusitania, now Portugal. 

Lutetia, now Paris, the capital of France. 


M. 


Marathon, now a village of Livadia, where the Greeks routed the 
Persians. 

Massagetes, now Turquestan, in Asia. 

Marcomanni, peopled the country which lies in the south-west of 
Bohemia. 

Mauritania, now Algiers, Tunis, Fez and Morocco. 

Media , now part of Persia, towards Aderbeitzan. 

Meander, now Mandre, a river of Natolia. 

Melita, now Malta, an island in the Mediterranean. 

Memphis, now Grand Cairo, the capital of Egypt. 

Mesopotamia, now Diarbeck, in Asia. 

Miletus, now Palatcha, in Anatolia, a town of apeient Ionia famous for 
its fine wool. 

Masia, now Servia and Bulgaria, in Europe. 

Missenia, now St. Adrian, a town of Morea, near Corinth. 

Moguntia, now the city of Mentz, in Germany. 


XI 


The Common Names of Ancient Geography. 

Monabia, now the Isle of Man. 

Mona , now Anglesea, in Wales. 

N. 


Nicomedia, a city of Natolia,formerly the capital of Bythinia, and destroyed 
by an earthquake in 356. 

Ninivehy now a heap of ruins, near the city of Mosul, on the river 
Tigris. 

Noricum , now part of Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Bavaria. 

Numantiay now Garrai, upon the Duro, a city of Spain* 

Numidra , now Biledulgerid, in Africa. 

o. 

Olympus , a mount in Thessaly, near the gulf of Thessalonica. 

Olympia , now Longanico, in Morea, where the Olympic games were 
celebrated. 

Orchades. now the Isles of Orkney. 

Qronles , now Oronz, or Tarfar, a river of Natolia in Asia. 

P. 

Padus, now Fo, a river of Italy. 

Pannoniciy now part of Styria, Carniola, Carinthia, Hungary and Bosnia, 
Paribenopey now Naples, in Italy. 

Parthia, now Arac, in Asia. 

Peloponnesus . now Morea, part of Turkey in Europe. 

Pelusiumy near the ruins of which stands Damietta, in Egypt. 

Pbanicia, now a part of Suria, or Syria, in Asia. 

Pieeniumy now Ancona, in Italy. 

Pontusy now part of Aladulia, in Natolia. 

Propontis, now the sea of Marmora. 

Ptolemaisy now St. John D’Acre, in Syria, famous for the defeat of 
Buonaparte and his eastern army by a handful of English sailors, 
under Sir Sidney Smith. 

R. 

Rhetia , now the Grisons, as far as Trent. 

Rbodopusy now Basilissa, a mountain in Romania. 

Rhegium , now Rezgo, a town in the promontory gf Italy that is nearest 
to Sicily. 

Rubicon, now Pisatello, a river that divided Italy from Cisalpine Gaul. 
Rutuli, inhabitants of the country now Campania di Roma. 

S. 

Saba, now Zibit, the metropolis of Arabia Helix. 

Saguntum, now Morvedro, a city of Valencia, inSptdn. 


xii The Common Names of Ancient Geography . 

Samnitesy inhabitants of the country now called Capitanate in Italy. 
Sarmatia, now Poland, Muscovy and part of Tatary. 

Sinus Adriaticus , now the gulf of Venice. 

Suenones, ancient inhabitants of Sweden. 

Scandinavia, now Denmark, Norway and Sweden. 

Scyt/jia, an extensive region, now Tatary. 

Seguani , inhabitants of Burgogne, or Franche Comte. 

Sicambria, part of Germany near to where the Main unites with the 
Rhine. 

Sidon, now Said in Syria. 

Sogdianay now a part of Tatary, bordering on Persia. 

Styx , a fountain in Morea, the water of which is extremely cold. 

Suevia, now Swabia, in Germany. 

T. 

Tanais, now the Don, a river that divides Europe and Asia. 

Thebes , now Stives, a city of Livadia, in Turkey. 

Thracia , now Romania. 

Trinacriay now the island of Sicily. 

Tyrrhene sea , now the sea of Tuscany. 

Tyrusy now Sur, in Syria. 

V. 

Vandaliay now that part of Germany which lies along the Baltick. 
Vindeliciy now a country between the Danube, the Inn, and the Alps. 
Volsciy inhabitants of Calabria, in the south of Italy. r ' 

Vindebonay now Vienna, capital of Austria. 


INTRODUCTION. 


-AlMONG all the liberal arts and sciences that are 
taught in schools, there is not one, perhaps, that has 
more to recommend it to general cultivation than Geo¬ 
graphy, or a knowledge of the globe we inhabit. 

To understand the theory of this science, with as much 
of Astronomy as respects the annual revolution of our 
planet round the sun, and its diurnal motion on its own 
axis; to be acquainted with its component parts; its va¬ 
rious inhabitants; its physical and political divisions ; is 
a delightful study, considered only as a subject of amuse¬ 
ment. 

But if we take into view the utility of the science, 
when applied to the purposes of navigation and com¬ 
merce—with the knowledge it unfolds of the laws, reli¬ 
gions, manners, customs, arts, and improvements of our 
fellow-men, in all their various dispersions, and the ten¬ 
dency it has to remove local prejudices, and to render 
the families of the earth more useful to one-another, it 
will be esteemed as one of the mos-t useful branches of a 
liberal education. 

To have a perfect comprehension of Geography, it 
is necessary to begin the work with a summary view of 
Astronomy, as far at least as a knowledge of one is pro¬ 
per to render the other plain and intelligible. 

Of all the heavenly bodies that fall under our observation, 
the most conspicuous is that glorious luminary, the sun, 
the fountain of light and heat to the several planets which 
move round it, and which together with it form what is 
called the solar system. The path by which the planets 
move round the sun, is called their orbit; and it is now 

b 




XIV 


INTRODUCTION. 


fully proved by Astronomers, that there are seven planets 
that revolve round it, each in its own orbit. The names 
of these, in the order of their approximation to the cen¬ 
tre of the sun, are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, 
Jupiter, Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus. The two first, 
because they are nearer the sun, and move within the 
earth, are called interior planets, and the four last, be¬ 
cause they move without the orbit of the earth, are called 
exterior planets. To assist the memory, and form an 
idea of the proportional distance of each planet from 
the sun; if the greatest extent of the Georgium Sidus 
from the sun were divided into 190 parts, the propor¬ 
tional distance of the rest of the orbits would be; Mer¬ 
cury 5, Venus 7, Earth 10, Mars 15, Jupiter 52, and 
Saturn 95. We shall only consider the two-fold motion 
of the Earth, or the planet on which we live. 

The spherical figure of the Earth being fully proved 
by the voyages of many navigators who have sailed round 
it, as well as by many other well known facts, the hypo¬ 
thesis of its motion is evidently rendered the more pro¬ 
bable. For if it move not round the sun, not only the 
sun, but all the stars and planets, must move round the 
Earth, with a velocity that exceeds all conception: 
whereas all the appearances in nature may be easily ex¬ 
plained by imagining the earth to move round the sun 
in the space of one year, and to revolve on its own axis 
once in 24 hours. 

To form a conception of these two motions of the 
earth, we may imagine a ball moving on a billiard-table, 
or a bowling-green: the ball proceeds forward upon the 
green or table, not by sliding along like a plane upon 
wood, but by turning round its own axis, an imaginary 
line drawn through its centre, and ending on its surface. 
The earth, in twenty-four hours, revolves from west to 
east, while the inhabitants on the surface may conceive 
that the sun and stars move from east to west; like men 
on the deck of a ship, who are insensible of their own 
motion, and think that the banks move from them, in a 
contrary direction. This diurnal motion of the earth 
clearly conceived, will enable us more easily to compre¬ 
hend its annual motion round the sun. For as that lu- 


INTRODUCTION. 


xv 


nwnary seems to have a diurnal motion round the earth, 
■which is really occasioned by the diurnal motion of the 
lauer round its own axis, so, in the course of the year, 
he seems to have an annual motion in the heavens, and 
to rise and set in different points, which is really caused 
by the annual motion of the earth, in its orbit round the 
sun, which it completes in the space of one year.... As to 
the first of these motions we owe the succession of days 
and nights, so, to the second we are indebted for the sea¬ 
sons of the year, and the difference in the length of days 
and nights. 

.out it is necessary to observe that the axis of the earth 
is not exactly parallel to, or in a line with, the axis of its 
oibit; because then the same parts of the earth would be 
tinned toward the sun in every diurnal revolution, which 
would deprive mankind of the grateful vicissitudes of the 
seasons, arising from the difference in the length of days 
and nights. This is therefore not the case:....In the 
earth’s whole annual course round the sun, its axis is 
23| degrees inclined from a perpendicular to its orbit.... 
Of this we may conceive some idea, by supposing a spin¬ 
dle put through a ball, with one end of it touching the 
ground; if we move the ball forward, while one end of 
the spindle continues to touch the ground, and the other 
points towards some quarter of the heavens, we may 
form an idea of the inclination of the earth’s axis to its 
oibit, from the inclination of the spindle to the ground; 
and, of course, may comprehend the cause of the vicis¬ 
situde of the seasons, and of the difference in the length 
of the days and nights. 

OF THE GLOBE. 

By the globe is meant a representation of the different 
places and countries on the face of the earth, upon an 
artificial globe or ball. Geographers have represented 
the situation of one place with regard to another, or with 
regard to the earth itself, by certain artificial circles. 
After that circle in the heavens, winch is called the equa¬ 
tor, was known to astronomers, nothing was more easy 
than to transfer it to the earth, by which the situation of 
places was determined, as they lay on one side of the 



XVI 


INTRODUCTION. 


equator or the other. The reader having obtained a 
clear idea of this leading principle, we may proceed to 
consider the description of our earth, as represented by 
the artificial globe. 

Figure of the Earth. Though in speaking 
of the earth with the other planets, it may be sufficient 
to consider it as a spherical, or globular body, yet Sir 
Isaac Newton has demonstrated, from mathematical 
principles, that it is an oblatt spheroid , or that it is flatted 
at the poles, and jutted out towards the equator....and he 
computed the difference to be in the ratio of 229 to 230... 
The reason of this may be easily understood by a fami¬ 
liar proof. If a bail of soft clay be fixed on a spindle, and 
whirled round, we shall find it will jut out, or project to¬ 
ward the middle, and flatten towards the poles. 

Circumference and diameter of the Earth. 
According to the best observations, the diameter of the 
earth has been computed to be 7,990 miles, and its cir¬ 
cumference 25,038 miles, English measure. This cir¬ 
cumference is conceived, for the conveniency of measur¬ 
ing, to be divided into 360 pans, or degrees, each de¬ 
gree containing 60 geographical miles, or 69-| English 
miles. These degrees are subdivided ; each degree into 
60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds, and are 
marked thus d ’. m'. s". in geographical calculations. 

Axis of the Earth. The axis of the earth is 
that imaginary line, passing through its centre, on which 
it is supposed to revolve once in 24 hours. The extreme 
points of this line are called the poles, one in the North, 
and the other in the South, and are of great use in de¬ 
termining the distance, and situation of places, as they 
approach to, or recede from, the equator. 

Circles of the Globe. These are commonly 
divided into greater , six in number, and lesser , which are 
only four. The former pass through the centre of the 
earth, and divide it into two equal parts or hemispheres; 
the latter are parallel to the greater, but cannot pass 
through the centre, or divide the earth into two equal 
parts. 

Equator. The first great circle is the equator, 
er equinoctial line; because the sun, when moving in it. 


INTRODUCTION. 


xvii 


makes the days and nights of equal length, all over the 
world. It passes through the east and west points of the 
globe, and divides it into northern and southern hemis¬ 
pheres, and is itself divided into 360 degrees. 

Horizon. This great circle is represented on 
the globe, by a broad circular piece of wood encompass¬ 
ing the globe, and dividing it into ufifier and lower hemis¬ 
pheres. It is distinguished also into ee?isible and rational. 
The first is that which bounds the utmost prospect of our 
sight, when we view the heavens around us, and deter¬ 
mines the rising or setting of the sun and stars, in any 
particular place. The second encompasses the globe ex¬ 
actly in the middle, and its poles are called the zenith and 
nadir; the former exactly over our heads, and the latter 
under our feet.—The broad wooden circle on the terres¬ 
trial globe that represents the horizon has several circles 
drawn upon it, exhibiting the signs of the zodiac, the num¬ 
ber of degrees in each, and the days of the month, See. 

Meridian. This circle is represented by the 
brass ring on which the globe hangs and turns: it cuts 
the equator at right angles, is divided into 360 degrees, 
and serves to divide the earth into eastern and western 
hemispheres. It is called the meridian , because when the 
sun comes to the south part of it, he has reached his me¬ 
ridian altitude, and it is then meridies , or mid-day.— 
There are commonly marked on the globe 24 meridians, 
one through every fifteen degrees of the equator. 

Zodiac. The Zodiac is a broad circle , which cuts 
the equator obliquely; in which the twelve signs are re¬ 
presented. In the middle of this circle, is supposed ano¬ 
ther called the eclijitic , in which the sun never deviates in 
his annual course, advancing 30 degrees in every month. 
—The twelve signs are, 


1. Aries T....March 

2. Taurus £5....April 

3. Gemini n....May 

4. Cancer 25....June 

5. Leo SI ....July 

6. Virgo ^....August 


7. Libra =£=.... September 

8. Scorpio trL... October 

9. Sagittarius t ....November 

10. Capricorn >5 ....December 

11. Aquarius .... January 

12. Pisces X....February 


b 2 


INTRODUCTION. 


xviii 

Colures. If we imagine two great circles, both 
passing through the poles of the world; one of them 
through the equinoctial points aries and libra, and the 
other through the solstitial points cancer and capricorn, 
we have an idea of the colures....the one is called the equi¬ 
noctial, the other the solstitial colure.—These are all the 
great circles. 

Tropics. These are two circles drawn parallel 
to the equinoctial, distant from it 23| degrees: one to¬ 
wards the north, called the tropic of cancer; the other 
towards the south, called the tropic of capricorn. 

Polar Circles. If two other circles are sup¬ 
posed to be drawn at the same distance of 231 degrees 
from the polar points, these are called the polar circles. 
The northern is called the arctic , and the southern the 
ant-arctic ....These are the four lesser circles. 

Zone. The Zones are 5 in number: the torrid 
zone, or that portion of the earth lying between the tro¬ 
pics, which by the ancients Avas erroneously supposed to 
be uninhabitable, on account of its heat....two temperate, 
cr that portion comprised between the tropics and the 
polar circles—and two frigid, that are inclosed within the 
polar circles and the poles, and are the most unfit for 
human habitation of any part of the earth. 

Climates. These are certain divisions of the 
earth, determined by the various lengths of the day; and 
there are 30 of them between the equator and either pole. 
In the first 24, the days increase by half hours: and in 
the remaining six, which lie between the polar circle and 
the pole, the days increase by months. Georgia, and 
the Carolinas are comprised within the 5th climate, and 
the longest day about 14h. 30m.; the middle states with¬ 
in the 6th, longest day about 15h. New York and the 
eastern states within the 7th, the longest dav about I5h. 
30m. 

Latitude. The latitude of any place is its dis¬ 
tance from the equator, either north or south, but can 
never exceed SO degrees either way, as such is the dis¬ 
tance from the equator to either pole. 

i arallels of Latitude. These are imaginary 
circles, parallel with the equator which are drawn to in- 


INTRODUCTION. xix 

tersect the meridian of any place, and to designate its 
true situation. 

Longitude. The longitude of any place is its 
situation with regard to the first meridian, reckoned to¬ 
ward the east or west. Modern globes and maps fix the 
first meridian in the capital city where they are made. 
In England, the first meridian is fixed at London or 
Greenwich ; in France, at Paris; and in the United States, 
at Philadelphia. No place can have more than 180 de¬ 
grees of longitude. The degrees of longitude are not 
equal like those of latitude, but diminish as the meri¬ 
dians approach the poles. Hence, in sixty degrees of la¬ 
titude, a degree of longitude is but half the quantity of 
a degree at the equator, and so of the rest. 


PROBLEMS PERFORMED ON THE GLOBE. 

1. To find the Latitude of a place. 

Bring the place under that semicircle of the brazen 
meridian where the divisions begin at the equator, and 
observe what degree the place is under, and it is the la¬ 
titude required. 

2. To rectify the Globe to the Latitude of a place. 

Elevate the pole above the horizon till its altitude, ob¬ 
served on the brazen meridian, be equal to the latitude 
of the place, and it is then said to be rectified to the la¬ 
titude, and it so far stands right for the solution of all 
problems for that latitude. 

3. To find the Longitude of a place from Philadelphia. 

Bring the place to the graduated edge of the brazen 
meridian, and observe the point of the equator which lies 
under it, and the distance of that point from the point 
where the meridian of Philadelphia cuts the equator, is 
the longitude required. 


XX 


INTRODUCTION. 


4 . Given the Latitude and Longitude of a place, to fnd 

where the place is. 

Bring the given degree of longitude to the brazen me¬ 
ridian, and then under the given degree of latitude upon 
that meridian, you have the place required. 

5. When it is noon at any place A , to fnd the hour at any 

other place B. 

Bring A to the meridian, and set the index to XII; 
then turn the globe till B comes under the meridian, and 
the index will shew the hour at B. If it be not noon at 
A, set the index to the hour, and proceed as before, and 
you get the corresponding hour at B. 

6 . To fnd the distance of A from B. 

Bring A to the meridian, and screw the quadrant of 
altitude over it, and carry it to B, and you get the num¬ 
ber of degrees between A and B, which multiply by 69,2, 
the miles in one degree, and you get the distance required. 

7 . To fnd the bearing of B from A. 

Rectify the globe for the latitude of A, and bring A to 
the meridian, and fix the quadrant of altitude to A; then 
direct the quadrant to B, and the point where it cuts the 
horizon shews the bearing required. 

8 . At an hour of the day at B , to fnd the place A , to which 

the Sun is vertical. 

Find the sun’s place in the ecliptic, and bring it to the 
brazen meridian, and you find its declination on the me¬ 
ridian ; then bring B to the meridian, and set the index 
to the given hour, and turn the globe till the index comes 
to XII at noon, and the place under the sun’s declination 
upon the meridian is that required. 


INTRODUCTION. 


xxi 


9. To know the length of the day and night at any place at 

anxj time of the year. 

Elevate the pole according to the latitude of the place; 
find the sun’s place in the ecliptic at that time; which 
being brought to the east side of the horizon, set the in¬ 
dex of the horary circle at noon, or the upper figure 
XII; and turning the globe about till the aforesaid place 
of the ecliptic touch the western side of the horizon, look 
upon the horary circle; and where the index points, 
reckon the number of hours to the upper figure of XII, 
for that is the length of the day ; the complement of which 
to 24 hours is the length of the night. 

10. To explain , in general , the alteration of the lengths 
of the days, and the difference of the seasons. 

Put patches upon the ecliptic from aries both ways to 
the tropics, and let them represent so many different 
situations of the sun; and then, the globe being rectified 
to the latitude of the place (by art. 2), turn it about and 
you will see, for north latitude, that as the patches ap¬ 
proach the tropic of cancer, the corresponding diurnal 
arcs will increase; and as the patches approach the tro¬ 
pic of capricorn, the diurnal arcs will decrease; also, the 
former arcs are greater than a semicircle, and the latter 
less; and the patch in the equator will describe a semi¬ 
circle above the horizon. When therefore the sun is in 
the equator, the days and nights are equal; as he ad¬ 
vances towards the tropic of cancer, the days increase, 
and the nights decrease, till he comes to the tropic, where 
the days are found to be longest, and the nights shortest; 
then as he approaches the equator, the length of the days 
diminishes, and that of the nights increases, and when 
the sun comes to the equator, the length of the days and 
nights is equal. Then as he advances towards capricorn, 
the days continue to diminish and the nights increase till 
he comes to that tropic, where the days are shortest and 
the nights are longest; and then as he approaches the 
equator, the days increase and the nights diminish; and 
when he comes to the equator, the days and nights are 


XXII 


INTRODUCTION. 


equal. And whatever be the latitude, when the sun is 
in the equator, days and nights are equal. To an inha¬ 
bitant at the pole, the sun will appear to be half a year 
above the horizon, and half a year below. To an inha¬ 
bitant at the equator, the days and nights will appear to 
be always equal; also, all the heavenly bodies will be 
found to be as long above the horizon as below. At the 
arctic circle, the longest day will be found to be 24 hours, 
and the longest night 24 hours; this appears by rectify¬ 
ing the globe to that latitude, and observing the patches 
at the tropics of cancer and of capricorn. Lastly, it will 
be found that all places enjoy equally the sun in respect 
to time, and are equally deprived of it; the length of the 
days at one time of the year being found exactly equal to 
the length of the nights at the opposite season. This ap¬ 
pears by putting patches upon the ecliptic, at opposite 
points of it. 

11. To find at amj Day and Hour , the Places where the Sun 
is rising , setting , or on the Meridian; also , those Places 
which are enlightened , and where the Twilight is begin¬ 
ning and eliding. 

Find (by art. 8) the place to which the sun is vertical 
at the given hour, and bring the same to the meridian, 
and rectify the globe to a latitude equal to the sun’s de¬ 
clination. Then to all those places under the western se¬ 
micircle of the horizon, the sun is rising; to those under 
the eastern semicircle, the sun is setting ; and to those un¬ 
der the meridian it is noon. 

Also, all places above the horizon are enlightened, and 
all those below are in the dark hemisphere. 

Lastly, in ail those places 18° below the western hori¬ 
zon, the twilight is just beginning in the morning, and in 
those 18° below the eastern horizon, is just ending in the 
evening. 

12. To find all the Places to which a Lunar Eclipse is 
visible at any Instant. 

Find the place to which the sun is vertical at any time, 
and bring that place to the zenith, and the eclipse will be 


INTRODUCTION. xxiii 

visible to all the hemisphere under the horizon, because 
the moon is then opposite to the sun. 


ON THE DIVISIONS OF THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH. 

1. The surface of the earth contains land and 'water , 
The great collection of water is called the sea , or the 
ocean; and this is divided into three principal parts; the 
Atlantic Ocean, which divides Europe and Africa from 
America; the Pacific Ocean, or great South Sea , which di¬ 
vides Asia from America; and the Indian Sea, which lies 
between Africa and Malacca , Sumatra , Java, Mew Holland , 
See. Besides these, there are others which take their 
names from the countries against which they are situ¬ 
ated: as the Irish Sea, the German Sea. There is also 
the Mediterranean Sea, dividing Europe from Africa; the 
Pluck Sea; the Caspian Sea, which is not connected with 
the other Seas; the Red Sea, See. See. 

2. A bay , or gulf is a part of the sea running into the 
land, so as to have a considerable proportion of it, more 
or less according to circumstances, bounded by shores; 
as the bay of Biscay , the bay of Bengal , Hudson’s bay, 
Cardigan bay; the gulf of Venice , the gulf of Mexico , 
the gulf of Japan , See. See. If the extent into the land 
be but small, it is called a creek , a haven , or a road. 

3. A strait , or straight , is a narrow part of the sea 
running between two countries, and connecting two 
seas; as the straits of Dover , the straits of Gibraltar , 
the straits of Sunda , the straits of Magellan , See. Sec. 

4. A considerable body of inland fresh water is called 
a lake; as the lake of Geneva , lake Ontario , lake of Der¬ 
went , Sec. Sec. 

5. A considerable stream of inland water which runs 
into the sea, is called a river; and smaller streams 
which run into a river, are called brooks. 

6. A current is a stream of water upon the sea. Un¬ 
der the equator there are some very violent ones, against 
which a ship cannot make any way. There is one which 
carries a ship very swiftly from Africa to America , but 
it cannot return the same way. Governor Pownal ob- 


XXIV 


INTRODUCTION. 


serves that this current performs a continual circulation, 
setting out from the coast of Guinea , crossing over the 
Atlantic , setting into the gulf of Mexico by the south, 
and sweeping round by the bottom of the gulf, it issues 
on the north side, and goes along the coast of North 
America till it arrives at Newfoundland , where it is turn¬ 
ed back across the Atlantic to the coast of Europe, and 
thence southward to the point from which it sets out.— 
In St. George's Channel there is a current which usually 
sets in eastward. From the Baltic a current sets into 
the British Channel. It is generally allowed, that there 
is always a current setting round the Capes of Finisterre 
and Ortegal into the bay of Biscay; and Mr. Rennell 
has discovered that this current is continued, and passes 
about N. W. by W. from the coast of France, to the 
westward of Scilly and Ireland. In crossing the Atlan¬ 
tic therefore for the English Channel, he advises the na¬ 
vigator to keep in the parallel of 48®. 45', at the highest, 
lest the current should carry him upon the rocks of Scil¬ 
ly. From an ignorance of this current, many ships have 
been lost on those rocks. 

7. A very great extent of land is called a continent , of 
which there are two; one contains Europe , Asia , and 
Africa; and the other contains America; and these are 
called the four quarters of the world; the former is called 
the Eastern , and the latter the Westeim continent. 

8. A small extent of land surrounded by the sea, is 
called an Island. 

9. If land run out from the main and be joined to it 
by a narrow slip—the first is called a peninsula , and the 
latter an isthmus. 

10. If land jut out into the sea, without an isthmus, it 
is called a promontory, and the point of it is called a cape. 

Maps. A map is a representation of the Earth, 
or a part of it, on a plane surface. It differs from a globe 
in the same manner as a picture does from a statue. The 
globe truly represents the earth, whereas a map, bei ng a 
plane surface, cannot represent a spherical body. The 
cardinal points are the north, south, east and west. The 
north is considered as the upper part of the map, and the 
south the bottom; the east is on the right hand, and the 































































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INTRODUCTION. 


xxv 


west on the left. From the top to the bottom are drawn 
meridians, or lines of longitude; and from side to side, pa¬ 
rallels of latitude. The outermost of the meridians, and 
parallels, are marked with degrees of latitude and longi¬ 
tude, by means of which, and the scale of miles commonly 
placed in the corner of the map, the situation, distance, 
&c. of places may be found, as on the artificial globe. 

Length of miles in different Countries. 
Agreeably to Dr. Halley’s calculations. 

The English statute mile consists of 5280 feet, 1760 
yards, or 8 furlongs. 

The Russian Verst is little more than 1 of an En¬ 
glish mile. 

The Turkish, Italian, and old Roman lesser mile, is 
nearly one English mile. 

The Arabian, ancient and modern, is about U English. 

The Scotch, and Irish mile is about \\ English. 

The Indian is almost 3 English. 

The Dutch, Spanish, and Polish, is about 31 English. 

The German is more than 4 English. 

The Swedish, Danish, and Hungarian, is from 5 to 8 
English. 

The French common league is near 3 English; and 

The English marine league is 3 English miles. 


c 


GEOGRAPHY. 


EUROPE. 

AS Europe is the seat of letters and arts, and the great¬ 
est exertions of mental energy in every department; and 
is besides the native region of the chief modern geogra¬ 
phers, it is generally the region first treated. But before 
we proceed to consider the several kingdoms and states 
comprised in this division of the globe, it may be proper 
to offer a brief and general description of the whole. 

Extent. This part of the globe is smallest in 
extent, yielding considerably to Africa. From the Portu¬ 
guese cape, called by our mariners the Rock of Lisbon, 
in the west, to the Uralian mountains in the east, the 
length may be about 3,300 British miles; and the breadth 
from the North Cape in Danish Lapland, to Cape Mata- 
pan, the southern extremity of Greece, may be about 
2,350. The contents in square miles have been calculated 
at two millions and a half: the inhabitants 150,000,000. 

Limits. On the south, the continental part, is 
limited by the Mediterranean sea, on the west by the At¬ 
lantic, which contains the furthest European isle that of 
Iceland, Greenland being regarded as a part of North 
America. In the opinion of several geographers, the 
Azores or Western Isles are clearly European, being 
nearer to Portugal than to any other continental land, 
while the Madeiras, for the same reason, belong to Af¬ 
rica. On the north, the boundary is the Arctic Ocean, 
embracing the remote isles of Spilzbergen and Novaya 
Zemlia, or the New Land. On the east, it is bounded 
by Asia. 

Ancient Population. The ancient population of 
Europe consisted of the Celts in the west and south: the 
kins in the north-east, and the Laps or Laplanders, in 
the furthest north. Those ancient inhabitants, who seem 
to have been thinly scattered, were driven towards the 
west and north by the Scythians or Goths from Asia, 
whose descendants occupy the greater part of Europe; 
by the Sarmatians or Slavonic tribes, also from Asia^ 
tlie ancestors oi the Russians, Poles, See. and who were 




EUROPE. 


2 7 


accompanied by the Heruli, using what is now called 
the Lettic speech, to be found in Prussia, Lithuania, 

. Samogitia, Courland, and Livonia, being a-kin to the 
Slavonic language, yet with many shades of distinction. 
From Africa the colony of Iberi, and northern Mauretani, 
passed into Spain at a very early period. The later ac¬ 
cession of Hungarians, and Turks from Asia may like¬ 
wise be commemorated. 

Religion. The Christian Religion prevails 
throughout Europe except in Turkey, where however at 
least one half of the inhabitants are attached to the Greek 
church. Wherever the Christian faith has penetrated, 
knowledge, industry, and civilization have followed: 
among the barbarous tribes in the north the progress was 
unhappily slow, Scandinavia remaining Pagan till the 
eleventh century; and some Slavonic tribes on the south 
of the Baltic till the thirteenth ; nay, it is not above a 
century ago since the Laplanders were converted by mis¬ 
sions from Denmark. The two grand distinctions are 
Catholics and Protestants: the former in the south, where 
the passions are more warm and the imagination more 
delighted with splendour; the latter in the north, where 
the operations of the judgment predominate. 

Climate. This fair portion of the globe is chiefly 
situated in the temperate zone: if such distinctions have 
not vanished from geography since modern discoveries 
have evinced, that the climate often depends on local 
causes ; that the Alps in a southern latitude present moun¬ 
tains of ice unknown in Lapland ; that the torrid zone 
abounds with water and habitations, and may perhaps 
contain mountains covered with snow. Yet freedom from 
the excessive heats of Asia and Africa has contributed to 
the vigour of the frame, and the energy of the mind. 

Inland Seas. In a general view of Europe one 
of the most striking and interesting features is the num¬ 
ber and extent of the inland seas; justly regarded as chief 
causes of the extensive industry and civilization, and con¬ 
sequent superiority to the other grand divisions of the 
globe. Among inland seas the Mediterranean is justly 
pre-eminent, having been the centre of civilization to an¬ 
cient and modern Europe. The columns of Hercules 
marked its western boundary; being the mountain of 


28 


EUROPE. 


rock of Abyla, now called Ceuta, and Kalpe in Spain, 
the Gibraltar of modern fame. The length of the Medi¬ 
terranean is about 2000 miles to its farthest extremity in 
Syria; but in ancient maps the length has been extended 
to about 2500 miles. On its northern side open two large 
gulfs, that of Venice and the Archipelago; the former 
being the Adriatic, the latter the Egean sea of the an¬ 
cients. From this last a strait, called the Hellespont con¬ 
ducts to the sea of Marmora, the classical Propontis : and 
another now styled the strait of Constantinople, the an¬ 
cient Thracian Bosphorus, leads to the Euxine or Black 
sea; which to the north presents the shallow Palus 
Msotis, or sea of Azof, the utmost maritime limit of 
Europe in that quarter. 

The second grand inland sea of Europe is the Baltic, 
by the Germans called the Eastern sea. This extensive 
inlet opens from the German sea by a gulf pointing N. E. 
called the Skager Rack; and afterwards passes south in 
what is called the Cattegat, to the S. E. of which is the 
Sound of Elsinore, a strait where vessels pay a tribute 
of courtesy to Denmark. The Baltic afterwards spreads 
widely to the N. E. and is divided into two extensive 
branches called the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, both 
covered or impeded with ice for four or five months of 
the northern winter. 

The third and last inland sea of Europe is that called 
the White Sea in the north of Russia. 

To the north of Europe is the Arctic ocean, the dis¬ 
mal and solitary reservoir of myriads of miles of ice; 
yet this enormous waste is in the hand of Providence a 
fertile field of provisions for the human race. Here the 
ast battalions of herrings seem to seek a refuge from nu- 
meious foes, and to breed their millions in security. 
About the middle of winter emerging from their retreat 
they spread in three divisions; one towards the west, 
which covers the shores of America as far as the Chesa¬ 
peake and Carolina, while another more minute squadron 
passes the strait between Asia and America, and visits the 
coasts of Kamtschatka. 1 he most memorable, the cen¬ 
tral, division reaches Iceland about the beginning of 
March, in a close phalanx of surprising depth and such 





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EUROPE. 


29 


extent that the surface is supposed to equal the dimen¬ 
sions of Great Britain and Ireland. 

Rivers and Mountains. The chief rivers and 
mountains will be described under the heads of the par¬ 
ticular countries to which they belong-. 

Governments. The kingdomsand states ofEu- 
rope may be considered, 1. As despotic monarchies, as 
those of Russia and Turkey: 2. Absolute monarchies, as 
Spain, Denmark, &c. or, 3. Limited monarchies, as the 
empire of Germany, kingdom of Great Britain, &c. 
Since the fall of Venice, and the subversion of Swisser- 
land and Holland, scarcely an example occurs of perma¬ 
nent and fixed aristocracy, or the hereditary government of 
nobles. Of democracy, or more strictly speaking, elective 
aristocracy, a few cities and some Swiss cantons may pre¬ 
serve a semblance; while France at the present hour is a 
military despotism, under the assumed name of the French 
Empire , and the ferocious tyranny of a daring usurper. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century the Euro¬ 
pean states comprised in the first order are: 1. The uni¬ 
ted kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland: 2. France: 
3. Russia: 4. The Austrian dominions: 5. Those of 
Prussia: 6. Spain: 7. Turkey: which last cannot be so 
justly reduced to the second order; for though perhaps 
approaching its fail, still it boasts the name and weight of 
an empire. 

Under the second order have been arranged: 1. Hol¬ 
land or the United Provinces now called the Batavian Re¬ 
public: 2. Denmark: 3. Sweden: 4. Portugal: 5. Swis- 
serland. In the third are considered the chief states of 
Germany, that labyrinth of geography, and those of 
Italy. The kingdoms of Sicily and Sardinia might per¬ 
haps, if entire and unshaken, aspire to the second order; 
and an ecpial station might be claimed by the junctive 
Electorate Palatine and Bavarian, and by that of Saxony. 
But as such states only form rather superior divisions of 
Germany and Italy, it appeared more advisable to con¬ 
sider them in their natural intimate connexion with these 
countries. 

This explanation being premised, the first description 
shall be that of the British dominions. 

c 2- ' 


ENGLAND. 


CHAP. I. 

NAMES, SITUATIONS, EXTENT, &C. 

Names. THE Phenicians are generally supposed 
to have discovered Great Britain and Ireland at a period 
of very early antiquity; and some suppose that the name 
of Britain originates from a Phenician word, while others 
with more probability infer it to have been an indigenal 
term derived from the Brets, tribes of which appellation 
may be traced in Gaul and Scythia. Among the first 
objects of the Phenician intercourse was tin, whence the 
Greek name of Cassiterides or the islands of tin. 

The name of Anglia or England is well known to have 
originated from the Angles, a nation of the Cimbric Cher¬ 
sonese or modern Jutland, who settled in the northern 
parts in the fifth century. 

Extent. i he island of Great Britain extends 
from fifty to fifty-eight and a half degrees of north lati¬ 
tude, being of course about 500 geographical miles in 
length. Its greatest breadth, from the Land’s End to the 
North Foreland in Kent, 320 geographical miles. 

England is bounded on the east by the German Ocean ; 
on the south by the English Channel; on the west by St! 
George’s Channel; on the north by the Cheviot Hills, by 
the pastoral river Tweed, and an ideal line falling south- 
west down to the firth of Solway. The extent of Eng¬ 
land and Wales in square miles is computed at 49,450*; 
and the population being estimated at 8,400,000, thenum! 
her of inhabitants to a square mile will of course be 169. 

Original Population. The earliest inhabitants 
of England are supposed to have been the Gael or South¬ 
ern Celts, called Guideis by the Welch, who regard them 




ENGLAND. 


31 


&S tlmn predecessors. Those tribes seem to have arrived 
from the nearest shores of France and Flanders', and were 
followed by the Cimri, or Cimbri from the same regions 
whence the Angles afterwards proceeded. But the Cim¬ 
bri were northern Celts, the ancestors of the modern 
Welch. The Scythians or Goths from Asia having seized 
on Germany and a great part of Gaul, gradually repel¬ 
ling the Celts towards the west, appear to have sent'co- 
lonies into England three or four centuries before the 
Christian era; for Ciesar found many tribes of the Bel- 
gae, a German or Gothic nation, established on the south 
and east of Britain. Those Belgae may be justly regard¬ 
ed as the chief ancestors of the English nation; for the 
Saxons, Angles, and other northern invaders, though of 
distinguished courage were inconsiderable in numbers, 
and the English language bears more affinity to the Frisic 
and Dutch than to the Jutlandic or Danish. 

Under the dominion of the Romans even the Belgic 
colonies, unaccustomed to the use of arms, had forgotten 
their former valour in the course of four centuries of sub¬ 
jection. Pressed by ferocious invaders, they seem to have 
invited to their assistance dangerous allies from the con¬ 
tinent. The Jutes arrived in the year 449, and founded 
the kingdom of Kent about the year 460; they also took 
possession of the Isle of Wight. In 477 the Saxons hrst 
appear, and the kingdom of the South Saxons commences 
at that epoch. The West Saxons arrived in the year 495. 
The sixth century was considerably advanced when those 
barbaric colonies were increased by the East Saxons in 
the year 527; but the first appearance of the great branch 
of the Angles, who were to perpetuate their name in the 
country at large, did not occur till the year 547, when the 
valiant Ida led his troops to Bernicia. The East Angles 
taking possession of Norfolk in the year 575, the southern 
and eastern coasts were almost wholly in the power of the 
invaders, who soon extending their conquests into the in¬ 
terior of the country founded in the year 585 the king¬ 
dom of Mercia, the last of the Heptarchy. 

England proper is divided into forty counties, and the 
principality of Wales into twelve, thus making the .vhole 
number of counties in South Britain fifty-two. 


52 


ENGLAND. 


Historical Epochs. The principal epochs of 
the English history, are, 

1. The population of England by the Celts. 

2. The Bdgic colonies, who introduced agriculture. 

3. The Roman conquest. Britain was only seen by 
Julius Cifcsar. The Roman conquest began in the reign 
of Claudius, and in that of Domitian the Roman Eagle 
had been displayed as far as the Grampian mountains. 

4. The arrival of the Saxons and Angles in the fifth 
century. 

5. The Danish conquest A. D. 1010. The Danish 
monarchs of England were Canute, Harold, and Hardi- 
canute; but the sceptre returned to the Saxon line A. D. 
1042. 

6. The Norman conquest, A. D. 1066. 

7. The great charter granted by John at Runymede. 

8. Not to mention the conquest of Wales and the tem¬ 
porary subjugation of Scotland, the civil wars between 
the houses of York and Lancaster may be regarded as 
the next memorable epoch. 

9. The Reformation introduced by Henry VIII. and 
Elizabeth. 

10. The civil wars under Charles I. 

11. The Revolution. 

12. The war with the American colonies forms not 
only an epoch of singular novelty, but of the most im¬ 
portant consequences. 

Antiquities. Those of the first Celtic inhabit¬ 
ants were probably as usual among savage nations, con¬ 
structed of wood, and of course there can be no remains. 
Some rude barrows and heaps of stones may perhaps be¬ 
long to the Druidic tribes, but Stonehenge, the large 
barrows or tumuli, Sec. more properly belong to the BeMc 
colonies. Stonehenge is situated near the capital of the 
ancient iselgae, and there is a similar monument, but 
said to be of far greater extent, near Vannes, a town 
on the French coast which was possessed by the Belgae. 
At Stonehenge there appear to be three principal circles 
of stones, the outer connected together by an uniform 
pavement as it were at the top, to which the chiefs might 
ascend and speak to the surrounding crowd. A second cir- 


ENGLAND. 


cle consists of detached upright stones about five feel in 
height, while the highest are eighteen. Within this is a 
grand oval, originally consisting of five trilithons of two 
huge stones crossed by another at the top and inclosing 
smaller stones, which seem to have been seats, and a large 
flat stone commonly called the altar, but which seems to 
have been the throne or seat of judgment. There is be¬ 
sides a very high stone towards the north-east or rising 
sun, and near this a large flat stone encompassed with a 
mound, which is probably the real altar on which human 
victims were sometimes sacrificed. There are also two 
other stones at a considerable distance to the E. and W. 
and the whole seems to be in the midst of a very exten¬ 
sive circle, marked by an eastern embankment almost 
effaced by the lapse of years, and affording sufficient 
space for all the males of the tribe or nation. These rude 
structures were probably erected for the purpose of judi¬ 
ciary proceedings, as well as the immolation of human 
sacrifices. 

The Roman antiquities of England have been repeat¬ 
edly illustrated. The greatest number of Roman in¬ 
scriptions, altars, &c. has been found in the north, along 
the great frontier wall, which extended from the western 
Sea, to the estuary of Tyne. The Roman roads were 
also striking monuments of their power. 

The Saxon antiquities in England are chiefly edifices, 

, sacred or secular; many churches remain, which were 
altogether, or, for the most part, constructed in the Sax¬ 
on period, and some are extant of the tenth, or, perhaps, 
the ninth century. The vaults erected by Grimbald, at 
Oxford, in the reign of Alfred, are justly esteemed cu¬ 
rious relics of Saxon architecture. The oldest castles 
seem to consist of one solitary tower, square, or hexago¬ 
nal : one of the rudest specimens, is Coningsburg Castle, 
in Yorkshire: but, as that region was subject to the 
Danes, till the middle of the tenth century, it is probably 
Danish. 

The Danish power in England, though of considera¬ 
ble duration in the north, was in the south, brief and 
transitory. The camps of that nation were circular, 
like those of the Belgae and Saxons, while those of Ro- 


34 


ENGLAND. 


man armies are known by the square form: and it is be¬ 
lieved that the only distinct relics of the Danes are some 
castles to the north of the Humber, and a few stones with 
Runic inscriptions. 

The monuments styled Norman, commenced after the 
conquest, and extended to the fourteenth century; when 
what is called the rich Gothic began to appear, which in 
the sixteenth century was supplanted by the mixed; and 
this in its turn yielded to the Grecian. In general the 
Norman style far exceeds the Saxon in the size of the 
edifices and the decoration of the parts. The churches 
become more extensive and lofty, and the windows 
larger, and more diversified. Uncouth animals begin to 
yield to leaves and flowers. This improvement is visible 
in King’s College, Cambridge, and many other grand 
specimens in the kingdom. 

Religion. Christianity was planted very early 
in this Island, perhaps by St. Paul, cr some of his imme¬ 
diate disciples; for it is certain that in the year 150, the 
professors of our holy faith were numerous.—By de¬ 
grees, the papal authority, and the corruptions of the 
church of Rome spread themselves here, as well as in 
all the other nations of Europe. Jno. Wicklifife, (an 
Englishman) in the reign of Edward III. has the honour 
of being the first person in Europe who had firmness 
enough publicly to expose the corruptions of the Romish 
church. After passing through a flood of persecution, 
the nation at length shook off entirely the shackles of 
papal domination, and established a religious system, and 
an ecclesiastical government for itself.—The present con¬ 
stitution of the Church of England is Episcopal; and it is 
governed by bishops, every one of whom has a seat and 
vote in the house of peers, as ail their benefices were 
converted into temporal baronies by the Norman con¬ 
queror. Ever since the time of Henry VIII. the sove¬ 
reigns of England are heads of the church; but this is. 
very little more than nominal, as the kings never inter¬ 
meddle in the affairs of the church. 

The Church of England is now, beyond any other na¬ 
tional established church, tolerant in its principles. No 
religious sect is prevented from worshipping God in that 


ENGLAND. 


manner which their consciences approve.—Of course re¬ 
ligious sects have multiplied here beyond the example of 
any other country in Europe. But it would certainly be 
wise policy in the government to provide for the support 
of the Episcopal clergy, by some other means than by 
tythes and church rates collected by distraint from dis¬ 
senters; as they are the source of more just and general 
discontent in the nation, than any other law or custom. 
Although the great bulk of the inhabitants is Protestant: 
still there are many families in England who profess the 
Homan Catholic religion, and exercise it under very 
mild and gentle restrictions. None perhaps are more 
peaceable and loyal subjects. 

Government. The government is a limited 
monarchy , counterpoised by two senates, one of heredi¬ 
tary peers, the other of representatives, who are, or 
ought to be, chosen by the people, though I am far from 
recommending universal suffrage, which would be the 
greatest scourge that could befal that nation. 

The acknowledged prerogatives of the monarch are 
chiefly to declare v 7 ar and make peace; to form allian¬ 
ces and treaties; to grant commission for levying men 
and arms, and even for pressing mariners. To the king 
also belong all magazines, ammunition, castles, forts, 
ports, havens, and ships of war; he has also the special 
management of the coinage, and determines the alloy, 
weight, and value. The prerogative likewise extends to 
the assembling, adjournment, prorogation, and dissolu¬ 
tion of parliament, and to its removal to any place. The 
sovereign also enjoys the nomination of all officers on sea 
or land; of all magistrates, counsellors, and officers of 
state; of all bishops, and other great ecclesiastical dig¬ 
nitaries; and is not only the fountain of honour, but of jus¬ 
tice, as he may pardon any offence, or mitigate the pen¬ 
alty. But he cannot enact new laws, or impose new tax¬ 
es, without the consent of both houses of parliament. 

This grand national council claims the next considera¬ 
tion. Originally both the Nobles and the Commons met 
in one house, and the division into two houses, a legisla¬ 
tive check unknown in any other country, may be re¬ 
garded as the sole foundation of English liberty. The 


66 


ENGLAND. 


House of Peers may be said to have existed from the ear¬ 
liest period of the English history, but concerning the 
origin of the Commons there is a dispute between the 
tory and whig writers. The present constitution of the 
parliament of England, may, however, be traced with 
certainty, to near the middle of the thirteenth century. 
The peers are hereditary senators in their several de¬ 
grees, of duke, marquis, earl, viscount and baron. When 
summoned to parliament, every peer, in his lawful ab¬ 
sence, may constitute a proxy to vote for him, which no 
member of the House of Commons may do. 

The House of Commons consists of knights, citizens, 
and burgesses, chosen by counties, cities, and burghs, in 
consequence of royal writs directed to the sheriffs. The 
members have certain privileges, as exemption from ar¬ 
rest in civil causes, on their journey to parliament, dur¬ 
ing their attendance, and on their return; nor can they 
be questioned out of the House for any sentiment there 
uttered. The Commons form the grand inquest of the 
realm, and may impeach or accuse the greatest peers; 
but their chief privilege, and upon which their whole 
power depends, is the levying of money, in which they are 
deservedly so jealous, that they will not permit the small¬ 
est alteration in a money bill. Since the union with Ire¬ 
land, the House of Commons consist of six hundred and 
fifty-eight members. A speaker or president is chosen 
at the meeting of every new parliament. 

Acts of parliament are first presented in the form of 
Mils, and, after having gone through various and exact 
forms, generally observed with great minuteness, become 
law on receiving the sanction of the crown. Adjourn¬ 
ments may happen in one session; but a prorogation ter¬ 
minates the session. 

Such are the three grand component parts of the En¬ 
glish constitution; but perhaps its most beneficial anc 
popular effects arise from the mode of administering jus¬ 
tice, and other ramifications. 

The Privy Council formerly possessed great power 
but at present is chiefly employed in deliberations on af 
fairs of sudden emergency, on peace and war, and spe 
eial provinces of the royal prerogative. 


ENGLAND. 


37 

In larter times since the management of the House of 
Commons became the chief object of the crown, the 
Chancellor of the Court of Exchequer, as superintendant 
of the public revenue, is the officer generally considered 
as prime minister. The distribution of fifty millions a 
year, joined with the royal support, has recently carried 
his power to the highest elevation. 

Judicature and Laws. The judicature of Eng¬ 
land is worthy of the highest applause Avith regard to pre¬ 
cision and purity ; and bribes, so frequent in other coun¬ 
tries, being totally unknown, the saving of this expence 
must be candidly poised against other legal disbursements. 
The trial by jury is another glorious feature of English 
jurisprudence, handed down from the Saxon times,' and 
is justly respected as the very safeguard of the lives, liber¬ 
ties, and properties of the nation. 

The forest laws relate chiefly to offences committed in 
or near the precincts of the royal forests. Martial law 
may be proclaimed by the king, regent, or lieutenant ge¬ 
neral of the kingdom ; and even in time of peace, though 
the prerogative be rarely employed except during war. 
It is in fact a dictatorial power never exerted except on 
great emergencies. The trials are summary and severe as 
the necessity of the case authorises. 

Among the courts of law the next in dignity to the 
House of Lords is the Court of King’s Bench so called, 
because the sovereign was understood to judge in person. 
The Court of Chancery judges causes in equity to mode¬ 
rate the rigour of the law, and defend the helpless from 
oppression. The Court of Common Pleas determines as 
the name imports, the common suits between subject and 
subject, and tries all civil causes, real, personal, or min¬ 
gled, according to the precise precepts of the law. The 
Court of Exchequer , so termed from the ancient mode of 
accounting upon a chequered board, decides all causes re¬ 
lating to the royal treasury or revenue. 

The judges perform their circuits in the spring and 
autumn, and in the mean while more minute cases are 
determined by the justices of the peace, who may be 
traced to the fourth year of Edward III. Every three 
months the justices of the county meet at what is called 
the quarter sessions, and the grand inquest or jury of the 


38 


ENGLAND. 


comity is here summoned, which inquires concerning' 
crimes, and orders the guilty to jail till the next circuit or 
assizes. 

Such are the chief magistrates and officers in the coun¬ 
try. Cities and towns are generally ruled by a mayor and 
aldermen, or by similar magistrates under different ap¬ 
pellations, whose judicial power little exceeds that of justices 
of the peace. 

Population. The population of England and 
Wales by the late enumeration amounts to nine millions 
three hundred and forty-three thousand five hundred and 
seventy-eight, containing 4,715,711 males, 4,62/,867 fe¬ 
males, 1,896,723 families, and 1,575,923, inhabited houses. 
That of Ireland is generally computed at three millions, 
while that of Scotland has been lately found to equal one 
million six hundred and seven thousand seven hundred and 
sixty. The various colonies in America, See. will net per¬ 
haps be found to amount to one million ; but the American 
states boast a British progeny of six millions, and the 
English language is probably diffused to the extent of 
Twenty millions of people. 

Army. The army during the late war was supposed 
to exceed 170)000 with 30,000 fencibles, and 78,000 militia, 
the volunteers being supposed to be 60,000. 

Navy. But the great rampart and supreme glory 
of Great Britain consist in her navy, in size, strength, and 
number of ships, far exceeding any examples on record. 

There are 195 ships of the line, 27 fifties, 251 frigates, 
and 314 sloops.—Total 787. For this immense fleet the 
number of seamen amounts to between one hundred and 
one hundred and twenty thousand. 

Revenue. The excise forms one of the most pro¬ 
ductive branches of the revenue, amounting to between 
seven and eight millions. Next stand the customs, which 
produce about half that sum. The stamps and incidental 
tuxes, as they are termed, arise to near three millions. 
The land tax has recently been rendered perpetual, and 
sold to proprietors of estates and other individuals. But 
instead of the land tax, now appear those on sugar, tobac¬ 
co, and malt, amounting to two millions seven hundred 
and fifty thousand pounds ; the other supplies arise from 
the East India Company, lotteries, &c. In the year 1799, 


ENGLAND. 


3,9 


it was supposed that the additional sums raised by loans, 
and other methods, swelled the national expenditure to 
near sixty millions sterling. 

Of the permanent taxes the greater part is employed in 
discharging the interest of the national debt, which after 
the American war amounted to more than 239 millions, 
while the interest exceeded 9,000,000. At present the 
national debt is about 480,000,000, and the interest about 
19,000,000. 

To alleviate this growing burthen, a sinking fund was 
instituted in 1786, by which between 20 and 30 millions 
may be considered as already redeemed. 

Political importance and relations. With 
such a prodigious command of national treasure, the poli¬ 
tical importance and relations of Great Britain may be 
said to be diffused over the world ; for wherever m@ney 
influences man, there may her power be perceived. She 
can afford the most effectual aid to her allies, or inflict 
the greatest injury on her enemies, by means of her navy, 
and her pecuniary resources, of any power in Europe.— 
Her principal commercial relation is with the United 
Grates of America ; and the interest of the two countries 
is connected by so many strong ties, that nothing but ex¬ 
treme folly can interrupt their harmony and mutual good 
offices. Closely united, they might not only secure their own 
peace, but promote the tranquillity of Europe.—Russia, the 
Germanic Empire, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Por¬ 
tugal are all interested in preserving a good understanding 
with Britain, as she is in cultivating their friendship and 
commerce.—Her principal, and most formidable enemy 
is France, against which she cannot exercise too much 
vigilance,—not only as her own implacable foe, but as the 
enemy of all the nations of Europe that refuse to submit 
to her dictation, and to co-operate with her in annihilating 
the British empire. 

Manners and Customs. The English, generally 
speaking, are a plain, honest, humane, and brave people. 
In manufactures they are ingenious, and excel all other 
nations. In navigation and trade, they are bold, enter¬ 
prising and liberal. Aipong foreigners they are accused 
of a cold restraint in their manners, but this perhaps will 


4 Q 


ENGLAND. 


be found to exist, more in appearance than reality, on a 
closer acquaintance. 

The simplicity of the English cookery strikes foreigners 
as much as that of the dress, which even among the great 
is very plain, except on the days of court gala. 

The houses in England are peculiarly commodious, neat, 
and cleanly ; and domestic architecture seems here arrived 
at its greatest perfection. 

The amusements of the theatre and of the field, and 
various games of skill or chance, are common to most 
nations. Eoxing and prizefighting, the beating of bulls, 
and bears is, it is believed, nearly discontinued: one of 
the most peculiar amusements of the common people is, 
the ringing of long peals, with many changes, which deafen 
those who are so unhappy as to live in the neighbourhood 
of the church. 

Language. From the situation of the country, and 
other causes, the English language participates of two 
grand sources of origination ; and unites in some degree 
the force of the Gothic with the melody of the Latin dia¬ 
lects. The ancient ground, and native expression origi- 
from the Gothic divisions of the Belgic, Saxon, and 
Danish ; but particularly from the Belgic, as will appear 
from comparison with the Dutch and Frisic. The lan¬ 
guages of Latin origin have, however supplied a vast wealth 
of words, sometimes necessary, sometimes only adopted 
because they are more sonorous, though not so emphatic 
as the original Gothic. 

The construction of the English language is peculiar, 
and renders the study of it very difficult to foreigners. 
The German and other Gothic dialects present declen¬ 
sions of nouns, and other correspondencies with the Latin, 
while in English all such objects are accomplished by pre¬ 
fixes. Anomalies also abound, and are too deep rooted to 
be easily eradicated. 

Literature. The grand feature of English lite¬ 
rature is original genius, from Roger Bacon to Shakes¬ 
peare, Milton, Newton and Locke. The reign of Queen 
Anne has generally been accounted the Augustan age in 
England. To the names aforementioned there were added 
in that reign those of Addison, Prior, Pope, Swift, Ar- 
buthnot, Congreve, Steele, Rowe, and many other eminent 


ENGLAND. 


41 


writers. But perhaps superior abilities to those which 
distinguish the reign of the present king, in almost every 
department of literature and arts, and a more general and 
liberal patronage of intellectual labour, were never known 
in any age or nation of the world. 

Arts. The present state of the arts in England is 
worthy of so opulent and refined a country, and the pro¬ 
gress has been rapid beyond example. Until the begin¬ 
ning of the eighteenth century England was obliged to 
import her chief painters from abroad. But the patronage 
and exertions of the reign of George III. have not only 
been crowned with a great perfection of the arts, but has 
been exuberant in the production of artists of deserved 
reputation. In painting, engraving, architecture and sculp¬ 
ture, England can boast native names, not inferior to the 
most celebrated in Europe. 

Schools. The education of the lower classes in 
England has been too much neglected, before the institu¬ 
tion of Sunday schools. The middle and higher ranks of 
English spare no expence in the education of their sons, 
by private tutors at home, or at what are called day schools 
and boarding schools. The most eminent public schools 
are, those of St. Paul’s, Westminster, Eaton, and Win¬ 
chester ; and from them have risen some of the most dis¬ 
tinguished ornaments of their country. The scholars in 
due time proceed to the universities of Oxford and Cam¬ 
bridge ; foundations of an extent and grandeur that impress 
veneration. In Oxford there are 17 different colleges, and 
16 in Cambridge, besides several halls, or smaller colleges. 
Of the two, Oxford is the more majestic, from the gran¬ 
deur of the colleges and other public buildings, and the 
superior neatness of the streets ; but the chapel of the 
King’s college at Cambridge is supposed to excel any single 
edifice of the other university. 

Cities and towns. In giving an account of the 
cities and towns in England, our plan will admit of only a 
brief sketch of a few, that are most noted for their dignity, 
wealth and population. 

London, the metropolis of England, is situated in an 
extensive plain or valley watered by the Thames, and 
only confined on the north by a few small elevations. It 
now includes Southwark, a borough on the other side of the 

D 2 


42 


ENGLAND. 


Thames, and Westminster, another city on the west. The 
noble river Thames is here about 440 yards in breadth, 
crowned with three bridges,crowded with a forest of masts, 
and conveying into London the wealth of the globe, form¬ 
ing an excellent port, without the danger of exposure to 
a maritime enemy. London presents almost every va¬ 
riety which diversifies human existence. Upon the east 
it is a sea port, replete with mariners, and with the trades 
connected with that profession. In the centre, it is the 
seat of numerous manufactures and prodigious commerce; 
while the western or fashionable extremity presents royal 
and noble splendour, amidst scenes of the highest luxury 
and most ruinous dissipation. 

Few cities can boast a more salubrious situation, the 
subjacent soil being pure gravel; by which advantage, 
united with extensive sewers, the houses are generally 
dry, cleanly, and healthy. Provisions and fuel are poured 
into the capital, even from distant parts of the kingdom.; 
the latter article being coals, from the counties of Nor¬ 
thumberland and Durham, transferred by sea, and thence 
denominated sea-coal. London requires in one year 
101,075 beeves, 707,456 sheep, with calves and pigs in 
proportion : the vegetables and fruits annually consumed, 
are valued at a million sterling. 

The population of London has by some been exagge¬ 
rated to a million of souls; but by the late enumeration, 
it does not contain above 885,577. Its length from Hyde- 
park corner on the west to Poplar on the east, is about 
six miles; the breadth unequal, from three miles to one 
and less ; the circumference may be about sixteen miles. 
The houses are almost universally of brick, and disposed 
with insipid similarity; but the streets are excellently 
paved, and have convenient paths for foot passengers. 
Another national feature, which is the most conspicuous 
in the metropolis, is the abundance of charitable founda¬ 
tions; the multitude and rich display of shops, the torrent 
of population constantly rolling through the streets; the 
swarm of carriages; and the blaze of nocturnal illumina¬ 
tions which extend even to four or five miles of the en¬ 
virons. 1 he churches and chapels exceed 200 in num¬ 
ber. There are three noble bridges across the Thames 
within the limits of the Bills of mortality. There are 4050 


ENGLAND. 


4 3 


seminaries of education; between 13 and 14 thousand 
vessels (besides river craft) arriving and departing; which 
carry between 60 and 70 millions sterling, annually, to 
and from this great metropolis. 

York. Next to the capital in dignity, though not 
in extent nor opulence is York: which is not only the 
chief of a large and fertile province, but may be regarded 
as the metropolis of the North of England. ThcTname 
has been gradually corrupted from the ancient Eboracum ; 
by which denomination it was remarkable even in the Ro¬ 
man times, for the temporary residence and death of the 
Homan Emperor Severus. This venerable city is divided 
by the river Ouse; and the Gothic cathedraHs of cele¬ 
brated beauty, the western front being peculiarly rich, 
the chief tower very lofty , and the windows of the finest 
painted glass. York divides with Edinburgh the winter 
visits of the northern gentry. Its inhabitants, according 
to the late enumeration, amount to 16,145. 

Liverpool. But Liverpool, in Lancashire, is now 
much nearer to London in wealth and population. In 
1699, Liverpool was admitted to the honour of being con¬ 
stituted a parish. In 1710, the first dock was construct¬ 
ed; and the chief merchants came originally from Ireland. 
Thenceforth the progress was rapid, and in 1760 the po¬ 
pulation was computed at 25,787 souls. In 1773, they 
amounted to 34,407; in 1787, to 56,670; and by the enu¬ 
meration in 1801, they were found to have encreased to 
77,653. Its increase has been equal to that of Philadel¬ 
phia in the United States. 

The number of ships which paid duty at Liverpool in 
1757, was 1371 ; in 1794, they amounted to 4265. In the 
African trade, a distinguishing feature of Liverpool, there 
was only one ship employed-'^in 1709; in 1792, they 
amounted to 132. In the recent act for the contribution 
of seamen to the royal navy, according to the ships regis¬ 
tered in each, the estimate is as follows: 


London, 5725 Hull, 731 Bristol, 666 

Liverpool, 1711 Whitehaven, 700 Whitby, 573 

Newcastle, 1240 Sunderland, 669 Yarmouth, 506 


44 


ENGLAND. 


Bristol is still a large and flourishing city, though 
much of its commerce with the West Indies and America 
have passed to Liverpool. The trade with Ireland has 
centered chiefly in this city. It is pleasantly situated at 
the confluence of the Froome with the Avon. The hot- 
wells in the neighbourhood appear to have been known in 
1480: but the water was chiefly used externally, till about 
the year 1670; when a baker dreaming that his diabetes 
was relieved by drinking the water, he tried the experi¬ 
ment and recovered. Since that period its reputation has 
increased, and many commodious and elegant erections 
have contributed to recommend these wells to invalids. In 
1787, Bristol employed about 1600 coasting vessels, and 
416 ships engaged in foreign commerce. Its population 
in 1801 was 63,645. 

Manchester, celebrated for its extensive cotton ma¬ 
nufacture, and the machinery of Arkwright, in 1708 con¬ 
tained but 8000 inhabitants. At the present time they 
amounted to 84,020. 

Birmingham was originally a village belonging to a 
family of the same name. It is now famous for its va¬ 
rious and extensive manufactures of hardware, and fancy 
articles of every kind. Between 1741 and 1790, Bir¬ 
mingham has experienced an augmentation of 72 streets, 
4172 houses, and 23,320 inhabitants: the population in 
1801, amounted to 73,670. 

Sheffield, though distinguished as early as the thir¬ 
teenth century for its manufacture of cutlery, had not 
risen to any degree of celebrity till about the middle of 
last century. At that period, all its manufactures were 
conveyed weekly to the metropolis, on pack horses. In 
1615, the population did not exceed 2152 persons, at pre¬ 
sent it is equal to 31,314.—There are many other towns 
in England of considerable fame, but those already men¬ 
tioned are the most distinguished for their extensive trade 
and manufactures, and the bounds of this epitome will not 
permit us to enlarge. 

Wales, which is a part of South Britain, and gives a 
title to the Heir apparent, is a country that abounds with 
the sublime and beautiful features of nature, but does not 
contain many towns of considerable note or magnitude. 

^ e? it may not be improper to take notice of Caernarvon, 


ENGLAND. 


45 


esteemed tne chief town of North Wales, and famous 
- for the grandeur of its castle, one of the most magnificent 
in Europe. Here was born Edward II. surnamed of 
Caernarvon, who was immediately created Prince of 
Wales; his father having promised to the vanquished 
\ V elsh a prince born in their own country, and who could 
not speak a word of English. 

Edifices. In a brief enumeration of the principal 
edifices in England, the royal palaces demand of course 
the first attention. Windsor castle, situated on an emi¬ 
nence near the Thames, has an appearance truly grand, 
and worthy of the days of chivalry. The view extends as 
far as the cathedral of St. Paul’s; and the whole scene 
strongly impresses the circumstances so vividly delineated 
in Gray’s pathetic Ode on Eaton College. This palace 
contains many noble paintings, particularly the cartoons 
of Raphael. Hamfiton-Court is in a low situation, orna¬ 
mented with aqueducts from the river Colne. This 
palace is also replete with interesting pictures. The 
royal gardens of Ke%v are truly worthy of a great and sci¬ 
entific prince; the ground, though level, is diversified 
with much art; and the collection of plants from all the 
regions of the known world, fills the admirer of nature 
with delight and surprise. They are so disposed, that 
every plant finds, as it were, its native soil and climate; 
even those that grow on rocks and lava having artificial 
substitutes. 

The royal palace at Greenwich has been long abandon¬ 
ed, but the observatory still does credit to science. It is 
a plain edifice well adapted to astronomical observations, 
and at present is superintended by Dr. Maskelyne. Dr. 
Hei'schell’s observatory, instead of containing his teles¬ 
cope, is suspended from it in the open air, at Slough, 
near Windsor, where he is continually extending the 
bounds of astronomical knowledge. 

Among the houses of the nobility and gentry, or pa¬ 
laces, as they would be termed on the continent, the first 
fame, perhaps, belongs to Stowe, the seat of the Marquis 
of Buckingham; which, for its enchanting gardens, has 
been long celebrated. When Mr. Beckford’s magnificent 
erections at Fonthill are completed, that fame will be far 
surpassed. Our intention, however, will be better ac- 


40 


ENGLAND. 


complrshed by a brief enumeration of some of the most 
celebrated country seats. 

Hagley, the seat of Lord Littleton: the Leasowes of the 
late Mr. Shenstone; Penshurst, near Tunbridge, a fa¬ 
mous seat of the Sidneys; Wanstead, of the Earl of Til- 
ney; Blenheim of the Duke of Marlborough; the seat 
of the Earl Spenser, at Wimbleton; Wooburn Abbey, of 
the Duke of Bedford; Louther-hall of Lord Lonsdale; 
Chatsworth, of the Duke of Devonshire, and many other 
splendid edifices, equally honourable to the country, as to 
their opulent proprietors. 

Bridges. The bridges are worthy the superiority 
of the English roads; and a surprising exertion in this 
department, is the recent construction of bridges in cast 
iron, an invention unknown to all other nations. The 
first example was that of Colebrook-dale, in Shropshire, 
erected over the Severn, in 1779. Another stupendous 
iron bridge was thrown over the harbour at Sunderland, 
about six years ago; the height of which is 100 feet, and 
the span of the arch 236. It is composed of detached 
pieces, any of which, if damaged, may be withdrawn, and 
replaced by others. When viewed from beneath, the 
elegance, lightness, and surprising height of the arch, 
excite admiration, and the carriages appear as if passing 
among the clouds. 

Inland Navigation. The earliest inland naviga¬ 
tion that can be authenticated, is the Sankey canal, began 
in 1755, leading from the coal-pits at St. Helens in Lan¬ 
cashire, to the river Mersey, and constructed in order to 
convey coals to Liverpool. The length of the canal is 
twelve miles, with a fall of ninety feet. 

But the Duke of Bridgewater is justly venerated as the 
grand founder of inland navigation; his spirit and opu¬ 
lence were happily seconded by Brindley, than whom a 
greater natural genius in mechanics never existed. It 
was in the year 1758 that the first act was obtained for 
these great designs. The first canal extends from Wors- 
ley mill, about seven computed miles from Manchester, 
and reaches that town by a course of nine miles. In this 
short space almost every difficulty occurred that can arise 
in similar schemes. There are subterraneous passages 
to the coal in the mountain, of near a mile in length, with 


ENGLAND. 


47 


air-funnels to the top of the hill, some of them thirty- 
seven yards perpendicular. This beautiful canal is brought 
over the river Irwell, by an arch of thirty-nine feet ia 
height, and under which barges pass without lowering- their 
masts. The Duke of Bridgewater soon afterwards ex¬ 
tended a canal of twenty-nine miles in length, from Long- 
ford-bridge, in Lancashire, to Hempstones, in Cheshire. 

After this deserved tribute to the lather of inland navi¬ 
gation in England, it will be eligible to review the other 
canals in a geographical manner, proceeding from the 
north to the south. 

First in order is the Lancaster canal, from Kendal to 
West Houghton, a space of about seventy-four miles. 

The canal from Leeds to Liverpool, winds through an 
extent of 117 miles; and from this canal a branch also 
extends to'Manchester. 

From Halifax to Manchester is another considerable 
canal; length thirty-cne miles and a half, begun in 1794. 

Another from Manchester towards Vv akefield; and 
another which stretches from the former, south-east, about 
fifteen miles. 

Another joins the river Dun, several miles above Don¬ 
caster, to the river Chalder, near Wakefield. 

To pass several of smaller note, the Chesterfield ca¬ 
nal extends from Chesterfield to the Trent, at Stockwith, 
a course of forty-four miles and three quarters. 

In Lincolnshire, one canal extends from Lincoln to the 
Trent, and another from Horncastle to Sleaford. Gran¬ 
tham canal reaches from that town to the river Trent, a 
course of thirty miles. 

Liverpool is connected with Hull by a canal from that 
long navigable river the Trent, and proceeding north to 
the Mersey. The canal which joins these two rivers is 
styled the Grand Trunk; the length is 99 miles. It was 
attended with great difficulties, particularly in passing the 
river Dove, in Derbyshire, where there is an aqueduct of 
twenty-three arches, the tunnel through the hill of Hare- 
castle, in Staffordshire, is in length 2880 yards, and more 
than 70 yards below the surface of the ground. 

From the Grand Trunk five or six branches extend in 
various directions: among which must not be omitted that 
to the river Severn, near Bewdley, which connects the 


ENGLAND- 


48 


port of Bristol with those of Liverpool and Hull; the 
length is 46 miles. 

f rom the city of Chester one canal extends to the Mer¬ 
sey, and another to Namptwich: another proceeds south 
to Shrewsbury, uniting the Mersey and the Severn ; with 
north- west, and south-east branches of considerable length. 

From Coventry, in the centre of the kingdom, canals 
extend to the Grand Trunk; to Ashby-de-la-Zouch, and 
to the Braunston, or Grand junction canal. 

What is called the Staffordshire canal, extends from the 
Grand Trunk to the river Severn ; and is met by the King- 
ton canal, which reaches from Kington in Herefordshire, 
so as almost to join the rivers Trent and Wye. 

Several inland navigations pass by Birmingham. The 
Union canal completes a course of forty-three miles and 
three-quarters, from Leicester to Northampton, whence 
the river Nen is navigable to the sea. 

Another canal extends from Gloucester to Hereford : 
and the south of Wales presents several navigations of 
considerable length, particularly that from Brecon, in 
Brecknockshire, to Newport, in Monmouthshire. 

I he Severn is not only joined with the Trent and the 
Humber, by various courses of navigation, but is united 
with the Thames, by a canal extending by Stroud to 
Lechlade, a course of near forty miles. 

Othei canals from tne T hames branch in various direc¬ 
tions ; that of Oxford joins the Coventry canal, after a course 
of 92 miles. The Grand Junction canal reaches from 
Brentford, on the Thames, and joins the Oxford canal at 
Braunston, after a course of 90 miles. On the south of 
the i names, a canal proceeds from Reading to Bath • an 
other from Weybridge to Basingstoke; and a third from 
Weybridge to Godaiming. There are some other smaller 
canals which we have not room to detail. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The earnest 
staple commodity of England was tin, a metal rarely found 
in other countries. The Phoenicians first introduced it into 
commerce, at least five or six hundred years before the 
Christian sera; and their extensive trade soon diffused it 
among the Oriental nations. The Romans upon their 

“X 631 v , re! V 0nS - did n0t ne S Iect this ^urce of 
wealth. Yet even in the reign of John, the product was 


ENGLAND. 


49 


so inconsidersble, that the mines were farmed to Jews 
for ICO marks; but in that of Henry III. they began again 
to yield a large profit, which has since gradually increased 
to a great amount. 

Wool had been regarded as a grand staple of England, 
as early as the twelfth century, but was chiefly exported 
in a crude state, till Edward III. encouraged settlements 
of Flemish manufacturers. Wool soon became the stand¬ 
ard of private property, and the prime article of com¬ 
merce. Taxes and foreign subsidies were estimated by 
sacks of this commodity. Great quantities of raw wool 
continued to be exported to the Netherlands and Hanse 
Towns ; but in the reign of Elizabeth it began to be chiefly 
manufactured at home, and the exportation of woollen 
cloths was then valued at a million and a half annually 
The exportation of raw wool was at length prohibited; 
and the woollen manufactures preserve great importance, 
though they no longer attract such particular regard, 
amidst the exuberance of English manufactures. 

In recent times the manufactures of iron and copper, 
native minerals, have become great sources of national 
wealth; nor must the new and extensive exportation of 
elegant earthen-ware be forgotten. The cotton manu¬ 
facture is diffused far and wide, forming a grand source 
of industry and prosperity. That of linen, except of 
sail-cloth, is not much cultivated in England. The ma¬ 
nufactures of glass and fine steel, clocks, watches, &c. 
are deservedly eminent and extensive. As the nation is 
indebted to Wedgewood for converting clay into p;old, so 
to Boydell for another elegant branch of exportation, that 
of beautiful prints. 

The English manufactures have been recently estimated 
at the annual value of 63,600,000/. and supposed to em¬ 
ploy 1,585,000 persons. Of these, the woollen manufac¬ 
ture is supposed to yield in round sums, 15,000,000/. the 
leather 10,000,000/. the iron, tin, and lead 10,000,000/. 
the cotton 9,000,000/. The other chief manufactures, 
which yield from 1 to 4,000,000/. may be thus arranged, 
according to their consequence; steel, plating, &c. copper, 
and brass, silk, potteries, linen and flax, hemp, glass, 
paper. 

E 


50 


ENGLAND. 


The commerce of England is, at the present period, 
enormous, and may be said to extend to every region of 
the globe. The trade with the West Indies is one of the 
most important, and that with the East Indies alone, 
would have astonished any of the celebrated trading cities 
of antiquity. 

From the states of North America, are chiefly import¬ 
ed tobacco, rice, indigo, timber, hemp, flax, iron, pitch, 
tar, and lumber: From the West Indies, sugar, rum, cot¬ 
ton, coffee, ginger, pepper, guaiacum, sarsaparilla, man- 
cineal, mahogany, gums, See. From Africa, gold dust, 
ivory, gums, &c. From the East Indies and China, tea, 
rice, spices, drugs, colours, silk, cotton, salt-petre, shawls, 
and other products of the loom. From the British settle¬ 
ments in North America, are imported furs, timber, pot¬ 
ash, iron ; and from the various states of Europe, numer¬ 
ous articles of utility and luxury. 

The annual income of Great Britain was estimated in 
1799, by Air. Pitt, at 102,000,000/.; and including the 
money, of which the estimate is far from certain, the 
whole capital of Great Britain may perhaps be calculated 
at more than one thousand two hundred millions. 

In the year 1797, the amount of the exports, according 
to Custom-house accounts, was 28,917,000/., and of the 
imports, 21 ,0 13,000/., yielding, as is supposed, clear profits 
on foreign trade, to the amount of at least 10,000,000/. 
The number of merchant vessels amounts probably to 
16,000; it is calculated that 140,000 men and boys are 
employed in the navigation. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of Great 
Britain is very variable, the vapours of the Atlantic 
Ocean being opposed to the drying winds from the eastern 
continent. The western coasts in particular are subject 
to frequent rains; and the eastern part of Scotland is of 
a clearer and dryer temperature than that of England. 

In consequence of the mutability of the climate, the 
seasons themselves are of uncertain tenour, and the year 
might properly be divided into eight months of winter, and 
four of summer. What is called the spring dawns in 
April; but the eastern winds prevalent in May, seem 
commissioned to ruin the efforts of reviving nature, and 
destroy the promise of the year. June, July, August, ^pd 


ENGLAND. 


51 


September, are usually warm summer months ; but a 
night of frost is not unknown, even in August, and some¬ 
times a cold east wind will blow for three days together ; 
nor of late years are summers unknown of almost con¬ 
stant rain. The winter may be said to commence with 
the beginning of October, at which time domestic fires 
become necessary ; but there is seldom any severe frost 
till Christmas, and January is the most stern month of 
the year. Yet as the summers often produce specimens 
of winter, so now and then gleams of warm sunshine illu¬ 
minate the darker months. March is generally the most 
unsettled month of the year, interspersed with dry frost, 
cold rains, and strong winds, with storms of hail and 
sleet. 

Soil and Agriculture. The soil is greatly 
diversified, but in general fertile ; and in no country is 
agriculture more thoroughly understood, or pursued in a 
grander style, except, perhaps in Flanders and Lombardy. 
I mean before these countries were visited with the scourge 
of French fraternity. The nobility and gentry, mostly re¬ 
siding upon their estates in summer, often retain consider¬ 
able farms in their own hands, and practise and encourage 
every agricultural improvement. 

The cultivated acres of England and Wales are com¬ 
puted at upwards of 39,000,000 ; the uncultivated about 
3,000,000. Of the latter about half a million is supposed 
to be unimproveable.—Gardening is also pursued in Eng¬ 
land with great assiduity and success. From the high 
prices given in the capital for early produce, each acre 
thus employed, in its vicinity, is supposed to yield about 
120/. annually. England is deservedly considered as the 
standard of ornamental gardening, just to the beauties of 
nature, and free from the uncouth affectations of art. 

Ri vers. England is intersected by four important 

rivers, the Severn, the Thames, the Humber, and the 
Mersey ; besides a considerable number of minor streams. 
None of the largest extend much above 150 miles into the 
country.—In general it may be observed of the British 
rivers, that the length of their course is inconsiderable, 
when compared with that of the Continental streams. 

1 he length of the Thames compared with that of the Da¬ 
nube, is only as 1 to 7, and with that of the Nile, as 1 to 1!?. 


52 


ENGLAND. 


The Kian Ku of China, and the river of Amazons, in 
South America, extend through a progress of more than 
fifteen times the length of that of the Thames. The rivers 
of the southern and middle parts of England, present a 
striking contrast to those of the north ; the former pur¬ 
suing: a slow and inert course over mud, between level 
banks, amid rich and extensive meadows ; while the latter 
roll their clear torrents over beds of gravel, between ele¬ 
vated banks, and rocky precipices ; and even when ver¬ 
dant levels occur, the stream still retains its banks and 
beds of gravel. 

Mountains. While Bennevis, the highest moun¬ 
tain in Scotland, is not much above one quarter of the 
height of Mont Blanc, the sovereign of the Alps, the 
E>i glish and Welsh summits aspire to heights still less 
considerable ; Snowdon being only 3568 English feet above 
the sea, while Bennevis is 4387, or, by other accounts, 
4350. Wharn, or Wharnside, in Yorkshire, was estimat¬ 
ed at 4050. Ingleborough at 5280 feet. A late accurate 
measurement has, however reduced this latter to 2380 
feet, and probably Wharnside ought also to be diminished 
in the same proportion. 

In the northern and western mountains and hills, chalk 
is unknown, 'while it forms a chief material of those in the 
south and east. The northern are mostly composed of 
limestone, free-stone, and slate, with mines of lead or coal. 
Those "of Derbyshire present vast masses of lime-stone. 
Those on the west, or Mendip hills, in Somersetshire, are 
wholly calcareous. The Granite begins at Dartmoor, in 
Devonshire, and runs through Cornwall, where it presents 
a variety of colours.—The mountains in Wales abound 
in slate, horn-stone, and porphyry, with large masses of 
quartz. 

Metals ant> Minerals. Among the British 
minerals are the tin mines of Cornwall already men¬ 
tioned. They are said to employ 100,©00 persons. Gold 
has been discovered in various parts of England, but the 
metal has never re-paid the labour and expence. The mines 
of rock salt must not be omitted : those of Norwich are 
the most remarkable, the annual produce of which has 
been estimated at 65,000 tons. But the most valuable 
mines of England are those of coal, found in the central, 


ENGLAND. 


53 


northern, and western parts, but particularly in the north- 
tin, aiound New-Lastle i 600,000 chaldrons are sent annu¬ 
ally to London, and 1500 vessels are employed in carrying 
them to that harbour along the eastern coast of England. 
—Cornwall also produces copper, so does Yorkshire and 
Staffordshire, but this metal is found in the greatest abun¬ 
dance in the north-western parts of Anglesea. Lead is 
found in Derbyshire, Somersetshire, and on the verge of 
Cumberland. The mines at the latter place alone employ 
about 1100 men. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. Al¬ 
though among the numerous species of vegetables which 
are the natives of Britain, there are scarcely any that are 
adequate to the sustenance and clothing of man ; yet the 
quantities of wheat, barley, rye, peas, beans, vetches, and 
oats produced are so great, that in some years large quan¬ 
tities are exported. In nothing, however, have the Eng¬ 
lish been so successful in cultivating, and meliorating, as 
the various grasses. Their climate is peculiarly adapted 
to grasses of every kind. They reckon no fewer than 27 
genera, and 110 species of grass, that are natives of the 
island. They have a plenty of excellent fruits : apples, 
pears, plumbs, cherries, peaches, apricots, nectarines, cur¬ 
rants, gooseberries, rasbemes, and other hortulan produc¬ 
tions grow here. The cyder of Devon and Herefordshire 
has been preferred to French wine. Their kitchen gar¬ 
dens abound with all sorts of greens, roots, and salads in 
perfection.— 

Mr. Pennant, in his British Zoology, has treated that 
subject at due extent, and with his usual ability. Of ani¬ 
mals, that celebrated author enumerates twenty genera, 
from the horse down to the seal and bat. The birds extend 
to forty-eight, the reptiles to four, and the fish to forty 
genera, besides the crustaceous and shellfish. 

That noble and useful animal, the horse, is found in 
England of many mingled breeds, while most other king¬ 
doms produce only one kind. Their race-horses descend 
from Arabian stallions, and the genealogy faintly extends 
to their hunters, The great strength and size of the Eng¬ 
lish draught-horses are derived from those of Germany, 
Flanders, and Plolstein ; and other breeds have been so 
intermingled, that native horses may be found adapted to 

E 2 


54 


ENGLAND. 


every purpose of pomp, pleasure, or utility. Those of 
Yorkshire are particularly celebrated for their spirit and 
beauty ; and the grooms of that country are equally noted 
for their skill in the management of this valuable animal. 

The indigenous horned cattle are now only known to 
exist in Neidwood-forest, in Staffordshire, and at Chilling- 
ham-castle, in Northumberland. They are long-legged 
and wild like deer, of a pure white colour, with black 
muzzles, ears, and tails, and a stripe of the same hue along 
the back. The domesticated breeds of their cattle are 
almost as various as those of their horses; those of Wales 
and Cornwall are small, while the Lincolnshire kind de¬ 
rive their great size from those of Holstein. In the 
North of England we find kylies, so called from the dis¬ 
trict of Kyle, in Scotland ; in the South we find the ele¬ 
gant breed of Guernsey, generally of a light brown colour, 
and small size, but remarkable for the richness of their 
milk. 

The number and value of sheep in England may be 
judged from the ancient staple commodity of wool. Of 
this most useful animal several breeds appear, generally 
denominated from their particular counties or districts : 
those of Herefordshire, Devonshire, and Cotswold-downs, 
are noted for fine fleeces, while the Lincolnshire and War¬ 
wickshire kind are remarkable for the quantity. The 
Teesdale breed of the county of Durham, though lately- 
neglected, continue to deserve their fame. The wool is 
beautiful, but the length of their legs lessens their value 
in the eyes of the butcher. The mutton of Wales, on the 
contrary, is esteemed, while the wool is coarse, yet em¬ 
ployed in many useful and salutary manufactures. 

The goat, an inhabitant of the rocks, has, even in Wales, 
for the most part yielded to the more useful sheep ; that 
country being, like Scotland, more adapted to the woollen 
manufacture. The breeds of swine are various and useful. 

England also abounds in breeds of dogs, some of which 
were celebrated even in Roman times ; nor have their mo¬ 
dern descendants, the mastiff and bull-dog, degenerated 
from the spirit and courage of their ancestors. 

Of their savage animals the most fierce and destructive 
is the wild cat, which is three or four times as large as the 
domestic, with a flat broad face, colour yellowish white, 


ENGLAND. 


55 


mixed with deep grey, in streaks running from a black 
hst on the back ; hips always black, tail alternate bars of 
black and white ; only found in the most mountainous and 
woody parts. The wolf has been long extinct, but the 
fox abounds. 

1 he cnief of their birds of prey are, the golden eacde, 
sometimes found on Snowdon : the black eagle has appear¬ 
ed in Derbyshire; the osprey, or sea eagle," seems extinct 
in England. I he peregrine falcon breeds in Wales ; and 
many kinds of hawks in England. An enumeration of the 
other birds would be superfluous. The nightingale, one 
of the most celebrated, is not found in North Wales, nor 
any where to the North, except about Doncaster, where 
it abounds; nor does it travel so far west as Devonshire 
and Cornwall. Their poultry seem to originate from 
Asia; peacocks from India, pheasants from Colchis; 
the guinea-fowl are from Africa. Their smallest bird is 
the golden-crested wren, which sports on the highest 
pine-trees; and largest the bustard, some of which weigh 
twenty-five pounds, and are found in the open countries of 
the south and east. 

The reptiles are frogs, toads, several kinds of lizards : 
of their serpents the viper alone is venomous ; other kinds 
are the snake, sometimes found four feet in length ; and 
the blind worm, seldom exceeding eleven inches. 

Of fish, the whale but seldom appears near the English 
coasts, the porpess, and others of the same genus are not 
uncommon. 1 he basking shark appears off the shores 
of Wales. Numerous are the edible sea-fish. Some of 
the most celebrated are the turbot, dorce, soal, cod, plaice, 
smelt, and mullet. The consumption of herrings and 
mackerel extends to most parts of the kingdom : but pil¬ 
chards are confined to the Cornish coasts. The chief 
river fish are the salmon and the trout, which are broug-ht 
from the northern parts in prodigious numbers, generally 
packed in ice. It is said that not less than 30,000 salmon 
are brought from one river, the Tweed, to London, in the 
course of a season. The lamprey is chiefly found in the 
Severn, the charr in the lakes of Westmoreland. The 
lobster is found on most of the rocky coasts, particularly 
off Scarborough ; and the English oysters preserve their 
Roman reputation. 


JO 


ENGLAND. 


English Isles. In the southern or English chan¬ 
nel first appears the Isle of Wight, by the Romans called 
Feeds; about 20 miles in length and 12 in breadth. The 
principal town is Newport—and one of the most remarka¬ 
ble buildings is Carisbrook-castle, where Charles I. was 
imprisoned by his rebellious subjects. 

At the distance of about 70 miles from Wight arises 
the little island of Alderney, off Cape la Hogue ; which is 
followed by the more important islands of Guernsey and 
Jersey, Sark being a small island interposed between the 
two latter. Guernsey, the largest of these isles, is about 
36 miles in circuit. 

Returning to the English shore, we first descry Eddis- 
tone light house, beat by all the fury of the western waves. 
This edifice has repeatedly been overthrown, but the pre¬ 
sent erection by Mr. Smeaton, composed of vast masses 
of stone, grooved into the rock, and joined with iron, pro 
mises alike to defy accidental fire, and the violence ol the 
ocean, though the waves sometimes wash over the very 
summit in one sheet of foam. 

About 30 miles west of the land’s end appears a duster 
of small islands, 145 in number, called the islands of Scilly. 
The iargest (St. Mary’s) is about five miles in circuit, and 
has about 600 inhabitants.—On the coast of Wales is the 
island of Anglesea, being the Mona of T acitus ; about 25 
miles in length and 18 in breadth ; is fertile and populous, 
and enjoys a considerable trade with Ireland. 

The last English island w orth mentioning is tiiat of Man, 
—it is about 30 miles in length, and 15 in breadth. The 
sovereignty formerly belonged to the Earls of Derby, but 
is now annexed to the English crovyn. 


SCOTLAND. 


SCOTLAND was first discovered to the Romans by 
Agricola, and was distinguished from South-Britain by 
the special appellation of Caledonia. 

i his name continued to be used till the Roman power 
expired. Bede, the father of English history, calls the 
inhabitants of the country by the name of Picti, which 
had also been used by the later Roman writers as synony¬ 
mous with that ofCaledonii. 

These distinctions continued till the eleventh century, 
when the new name of Scotia was taken from Ireland, its 
former object, and applied to modern Scotland. 

Extent. That part of Great Britain called Scot¬ 
land, is about 260 miles in length, by about 160 at its 
greatest breadth; it extends from the 55th degree of la¬ 
titude, to more than ■58-C The superficial contents have 
been computed at ,27,793 square miles, a little exceeding 
that of Ireland, and considerably more than half that of 
England. The population being estimated at 1,600,000, 
there will, of course, be only 57 inhabitants for every 
square mile, a proportion of about one-third of that of 
Ireland. This defect of population arises solely from the 
mountainous nature of the country, amounting, perhaps, 
to one-half, little susceptible of cultivation. 

Divisions. The territory of Scotland is unequal¬ 
ly divided into thirty-three counties : «ix of which may be 
called the Northern ; fourteen, the Midland ; and thirteen, 
the Southern division. 





58 


SCOTLAND. 


Original Population. So far as historical re¬ 
searches can discover, the original population of Scot¬ 
land, consisted of Cimbri, from the Cimbric Chersonese. 
About two centuries before the Christian cera, the Cimbri 
seem to have been driven to the south of Scotland by the 
Caledonians, or Picti, a Gothic colony from Norway. 

On the west, the Cumraig kingdom of Strath Clyde 
continued till the tenth century, when it became subject- 
to the kings of North-Britain; who, at the time, extend¬ 
ed their authority, by the permission of the English 
monarchs, over the counties of Cumberland and West¬ 
moreland. From the Picti originates the population of 
the Lowlands of Scotland, the Lowlanders having been, 
in all ages, a distinct people from those of the western 
Highlands, though the Irish clergy endeavoured to render 
their language, which was the most smooth and cultivat¬ 
ed of the two, the polite dialect of the court and supe¬ 
rior classes. About the year of Christ 258, the Dalraids 
of Bede, the Attacotti of the Roman writers, passed from 
Ireland to Argyleshire, and became the germ of the 
Scottish Plighlanders, who speak the Irish, or Celtic lan¬ 
guage, while the Lowlanders have always used the Scan¬ 
dinavian, or Gothic. 

Historical Epochs. 1. The original population 
of Scotland by the Cimbri, and by the Picti, forms the 
first historical epoch. 

2. The entrance of Agricola into Scotland, and the 
subsequent conflicts with the Roman?, till the latter aban¬ 
doned Britain. 

3. The settlement of the Dalraids, or Attacotti, in 
Argyleshire, about the year 258, and their repulsion to 
Ireland about the middle of the fifth century. 

4. The commencement of what may be called a regu¬ 
lar history of Scotland, from the reign of Drust, A D 
414. 

5. The return of the Dalraids, A. D. 503. and the 
subsequent events of Dalraidic story. 

6. 1 he introduction of Christianity among the Caledo¬ 
nians, in the reign of Brudi II. A. D. 565. 

7 * The union of the Picti and Attacotti, under Kenneth, 
A. D. 843. 


SCOTLAND. 


SO. 


8. The reign of Malcolm III. A. D. 105-6 : from which 
period greater civilization began to take place, and the 
history becomes more authentic. 

9. The extinction of the ancient line of kings, in the 
person of Margaret, of Norway, grand-daughter of 
Alexander III. A. D. 1290. This event occasioned the 
interposition of Edward I. king of England, which was 
the source of the enmity which afterwards unhappily pre¬ 
vailed between the kingdoms. 

10. The accession of the house of Stuart to the Scot¬ 
tish throne. 

11. The establishment of the Protestant religion, A. 
D. 1560. 

12. The union of the two crowns, by the accession of 
James VI. to the English sceptre, A. D. 1603. 

13. The civil wars, and the subsequent disputes be¬ 
tween the Presbyterians and Independants; causes that 
extinguished all sound literature in Scotland, for the space 
of twenty years, A. D. 1640-1660. 

14. The revolution of 1688, and the firm establish¬ 
ment of the Presbyterian system. 

15. The union of the two kingdoms in 1707, which 
laid the first foundation of the subsequent prosperity in 
Scotland. 

Antiquities. There are no monuments of an¬ 
tiquity, worth mentioning, of an earlier date than the ar¬ 
rival of the Romans. The remains of these conquerors 
appear in the celebrated wall, built in the reign of Anto¬ 
ninus Pius, between the Firths of Forth and Clyde, in the 
ruins of which many curious inscriptions have been 
found. Another striking object, is a small edifice, called 
Arthur’s Oven, supposed to be a temple of the god Ter¬ 
minus. The most northerly Roman camp yet discovered 
is in Aberdeenshire, the periphery of which is about two 
English miles. Roman roads have been traced a con¬ 
siderable way, in the east of Scotland. The smaller re¬ 
mains of Roman antiquities, such as coins, utensils, See. 
are numerous. The places of judgment, or what are 
called Druidic temples, are to be traced in many places. 
Those rude round piles of stone, constructed without 
any cement, called Piks Houses, deserve to be noticed. 
They seem to have consisted of a vast hall, open to the 


60 


SCOTLAND. 


sky in the centre, while the cavities in the wall present in¬ 
commodious recesses for beds. See. These buildings are 
remarkable, as displaying the first elements of the Gothic 
castle. 

Religion. Since the revolution, 1688, the Ec¬ 
clesiastical government of Scotland is of the Presbyterian 
form. Phe number of parishes in Scotland is 941; 
contiguous parishes unite in what is called a Presbytery, 
of which denomination there are 69. The provincial sy¬ 
nods amounting to fifteen, are composed of several ad¬ 
jacent Presbyteries; but the grand Ecclesiastical court 
is the general assembly, which meets every year, in the 
spring ; the king appointing a commissioner to represent 
his person, while the members nominate their modera¬ 
tor, or president. 

To this Ecclesiastical council laymen are also admitted, 
under the name of Ruling Elders, and constitute about 
one-third of this venerable body. This court discusses 
and judges all clerical affairs, and admits of no appeal, 
except to the parliament of Great Britain. 

As whatever establishment is effected in a free coun¬ 
try, opposition will always arise, the establishment of 
the Presbyterian system, was, in the space of one gene¬ 
ration, followed by the secession, which took place in 
1732. The seceders being the most rigid in their senti- 
ments, and animated by persecution, soon formed a nu¬ 
merous party. 

About the year 1747, they were themselves divided into 
two denominations, called the Burghers, and the Anti¬ 
burghers, because the division arose concerning the le¬ 
gality oi the oaths taken by the burgesses of some of the 
royal boroughs; the former allowing that the oath is 
proper, while the latter object; the former are the more 
numerous, the number of their ministers being comput¬ 
ed at about 100, and at a medium each has a congrega¬ 
tion of about 1000. 

Many respectable families in Scotland embrace the 
Episcopal form of the Church of England. The other 
descriptions of religious professions are not numerous, 
d here are but few K'oman Catholics, even in the remote 
Highlands, the scheme of education being excellent, and 
generally supported with liberality. 


SCOTLAND. 


61 


Government. The government of Scotland, 
since the union, has been bL tided with that of En. land. 
l‘he most splendid remaining feature of government in 
Scotland, is the general assembly, already mentioned* 
Next to which may be classed the high courts of jus¬ 
tice, especially that styled the session, consisting of a 
president, and fourteen senators. The lords of session, 
as they are styled in Scotland, upon their promotion to 
office, assume a title, generally from the name of an 
estate, by which they are known and addressed, as if 
peers by creation, while they are only constituted lords by 
superior interest, or talents. This court is the last resort 
in several causes, and the only appeal is to the parliament 
of Great Britain. 

The justiciary court consists of five judges, who are like¬ 
wise lords of session; but, with a president, styled lord 
justice clerk. This is the supreme court in criminal 
causes, which are determined by the majority of a jury, 
and not by the unanimity, as in England. There is also 
a court of exchequer, consisting of a Lord Chief Baron, 
and four Barons; and a high court of admiralty, in which 
there is only one judge. 

Laws. The law of Scotland differs essentially 
from that of England, being founded, in a great measure, 
upon the civil law. Of common law, there is hardly a 
trace, while the civil and canon laws may be said to form 
the two pillars of Scottish judicature. The modes of pro¬ 
cedure have, however, the advantage of being free from 
many of those legal fictions which disgrace the laws of 
some other countries. The inferior courts are those of 
the sheriffs, magistrates, and justices of the peace. 

Population. The population of Scotland, in 
1755, was computed at 1,265,000; according to the docu¬ 
ments furnished by Sir J. Sinclair’s statistical account, the 
numbers in 1798, were, 1,526,492; and by the govern¬ 
ment enumeration in 1801, the inhabitants appeared to 
amount to 1,599,068. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the Scots begin to be much assimilated with those 
of the English. In their religious ceremonies, attending 
baptism and marriages, there are variations arising from 
the Presbyteriam form, which does npt admit of god-? 

F 


62 


SCOTLAND. 


fathers or god-mothers, but renders the parents alone an¬ 
swerable for the education of the child. The clergyman 
does not attend at funerals, nor is there any religious ser¬ 
vice, but generally great decency. 

In the luxuries of the table, the superior classes rival the 
English; several national dishes, originating from the 
Trench cooking, in the reign of Mary, being now vulgar 
or neglected. The diet of the lower classes passes in a 
gradual transition from the north of England. The chief 
food is parich , or thick pottage, formed with oat-meal and 
water, and eaten with milk, ale or butter; in a hard 
lumpy form it is called brose . With this the labourer is 
generally contented twice or thrice in a day, with a little 
bit of meat for Sunday; nor does he repine at the bacon 
of the English poor, there being a theological antipathy 
to swine, which also extends to eels, on account of their 
serpent-like form. 

The sobriety of the lower classes is in general exempla¬ 
ry ; the Scottish manufacturer or labourer is ambitious to 
appear with his family in decent clothes on Sundays, and 
other holidays. This may be regarded as a striking cha¬ 
racteristic of the Scottish peasantry, who prefer the last¬ 
ing decencies of life to momentary gratifications. To 
this praise may be added the diffusion of education, which 
is such, that even the miners in the south possess a circu¬ 
lating library. 

The houses of the opulent have been long erected upon 
the English plan, which can hardly be exceeded for interior 
elegance and convenience. Even the habitations of the 
poor have been greatly improved within these few years; 
instead of the thatched mud hovel, there often appears the 
neat cottage of stone, covered with tile or slate. 

The dresses of the superior classes is the same with 
that of the English. The gentlemen in the Highlands, 
especially in the time of war, use the peculiar dress of that 
country. Among the other classes, the Scottish bonnet is 
now rarely perceived, except in the Highlands. 

Language. The Scottish language falls under 
two divisions; that of the Lowlands, consisting of the 
ancient Scandinavian dialect, blended with the Anglo- 
Saxon ; and that of the Highlands, which is Irish. The 


SCOTLAND. 


63 


Orkney Islands being seized by the Norwegians, in the 
ninth century, the inhabitants retained the Norse lan¬ 
guage till recent times. They now speak remarkably 
pure English. 

Schools. The mode of education pursued in Scot¬ 
land, is highly laudable, and, to judge from its effects, is 
perhaps, the best practical system pursued in any country 
in Europe. The plan which is followed in the cities is 
nearly similar to that of England, either by private teachers, 
or at large public schools, of which that of Edinburgh is 
the most eminent. But the superior advantage of the 
Scottish education consists in every country parish pos¬ 
sessing a schoolmaster, as uniformly as a clergyman; at 
least the rule is general, and the exceptions rare. The 
schoolmaster has a small salary, or rather pittance, which 
enables him to educate the children at a rate easy and con¬ 
venient, even to indigent parents. In the Highlands the 
poor children will attend to the flocks in the summer, and 
the school in the winter. 

The universities of Scotland, or rather colleges, (for an 
English university includes many colleges and founda¬ 
tions,) amount to no less than four, three on the eastern 
coast, St. Andrew’s, Aberdeen and Edinburgh ; and one on 
the western, that of Glasgow. 

Cities and Towns. Edinburgh, the capital is 
comparatively of modern name and note, the earliest hint 
that can be applied to it, occurring in the Chronicon Picto - 
rimij about the year 955, where mention is made of a town 
called Eden, as resigned by the English to the Scots, then 
ruled by Indulf. HoJyrood-house was the foundation of 
the first David. 

The population of Edinburgh including the port of 
Leith, was in 1678, computed at 35,500 ; in 1755, at 
70,430 ; and in 1801, was found by actual enumeration to 
amount to 82,560. 

The arrivals and clearances at Leith harbour, exceed 
the number of 1700 vessels of various descriptions. Of 
these 165 belong to the town. The commerce has been 
stated at half a million annually. 

The houses in the old town of Edinburgh, are some¬ 
times of remarkable height, not less than thirteen or four¬ 
teen floors, a singularity ascribed to the wish of the an- 


64 


SCOTLAND. 


cient inhabitants, of being under the protection of the 
castle. 

The new town of Edinburgh is deservedly celebrated 
for regularity and elegance, the houses being all of free¬ 
stone, and some of them ornamented with pillars and pi¬ 
lasters, and it contains several public edifices which would 
do honour to any capital. 

The second city in Scotland is Glasgow, of ancient note 
in ecclesiastic story, but of small account in the annals of 
commerce, till the time of Cromwell’s usurpation. The 
population of Glasgow, in 1755, was computed at 23,546, 
including the suburbs; the number in 1791, was esti¬ 
mated at 61,945 ; and the amount of the enumeration in 
1801, was 77,385. The ancient city was rather venerable 
than beautiful, but recent improvements have rendered it 
one of the neatest cities in the empire. Its commerce has 
arisen to great extent since the year 1718, when the first 
ship that belonged to Glasgow crossed the Atlantic. The 
number of ships belonging to the Clyde, in 1790, was 476, 
the tonnage 46,581 ; but before the American war it was 
supposed to have amounted to 60,000 tons. Though the 
manufactures scarcely exceed half a century in antiquity, 
they are now numerous and important. That of cotton in 
1791, was computed to employ 15,000 looms; and the 
goods produced were supposed to amount to the yearly 
value of 1,500,000/. 

Next in eminence are the cities of Perth and Aberdeen, 
and the town of Dundee. Perth is an ancient town, sup¬ 
posed to have been the Victoria of the Romans. Linen 
forms the staple manufacture, to the annual amount of 
about 60,000/. There are also manufactures of leather 
and paper. Inhabitants 14,878. 

About eighteen miles nearer the mouth of the Tay, 
stands Dundee, in the county of Angus, a neat modern 
town. The Firth of Tay is here between two and three 
miles broad ; and there is a good road for shipping to the 
east of the town, as far as Broughty-castle. On the 1st 
of September, 1651, Dundee was taken by storm by Ge¬ 
neral Monk ; and Lumisden, the governor, perished 
amidst a torrent of bloodshed. The population is how¬ 
ever, now equal to 26,084; the public edifices are neat and 
commodious. In 1792, the vessels belonging to the port 


SCOTLAND. 


65 


amounted to 116, tonnage 8,550. The staple manufacture 
is linen, to the annual value of about 80,000/. canvass, &c. 
about 40,000/. Coloured thread also forms a considerable 
article, computed at 33,000/. and tanned leather at 14,000/. 

Aberdeen first rose to notice in the eleventh century, 
and continued to be chiefly memorable in ecclesiastical 
story. The population in 1795, was computed at 24,493, 
but the enumeration in 1801, reduced it to 17,597. Though 
the harbour be not remarkably commodious, it can boast 
a considerable trade, the chief exports being salmon and 
woollen goods. Jn 1795, the British ships entered at the 
port, were sixty-one, the foreign five ; and the British 
ships cleared outwards, amounted to twenty-eight. The 
chief manufactures are woollen goods, particularly stock¬ 
ings, the annual export of which is computed at 123,000/. 

Greenock, by sharing in the trade with Glasgow, has 
risen to considerable celebrity; it contains 17,458 inha¬ 
bitants. Paisley, in the same county is famous for its 
manufacture of muslins, lawns, and gauzes to the annual 
amount of 660,000/. Population 31,000. Scotland has 
many other considerable towns, but it would exceed our 
limits to be more particular. 

Edifices. Scotland abounds with remarkable 
edifices, ancient and modern; we shall only mention a few 
in the vicinity of the capital, viz. 

Hopeton-house, the splendid residence of the Earl of 
Hopeton; Dalkeith*palace, a seat of the Duke of Buc- 
cleugh; Newbottel, the seat of the Marquis of Lothian ; 
Melville-castle, the elegant villa of the Rt. Hon. Henry 
Dundas, and the splendid mansion of the Marquis of 
Abercorn. 

Inland Navigation. The most remarkable in¬ 
land navigation in Scotland, is the excellent and extensive 
canal from the Forth to the Clyde, commenced in 1768, 
from a survey by Smeaton four years before. 

“ The dimensions of this canal, though greatly con¬ 
tracted from the original design, are much superior to 
any w r ork of the same nature in South-Britain. The 
English canals are generally from three to five feet deep, 
and from twenty to forty feet wide, and the lock gates 
from ten to twelve feet The depth of the canal between 
the Forth and Clyde is seven feet; its breadth at the sur 

F2 


66 


SCOTLAND. 


face fifty-six feet: the locks are seventy-five feet long, 
and their gates twenty feet wide. It is raised from the 
Carron by twenty locks, in a tract of ten miles, to the 
amazing height of 155 feet above the medium full sea¬ 
mark. At the twentieth lock begins the canal of parti¬ 
tion on the summit between the east and west seas ; which 
canal of partition continues eighteen miles, on a level, ter¬ 
minating at Hamilton-hili, a mile N. W. of the Clyde, at 
Glasgow. In the fourth mile of the canal there are ten 
locks, and a line aqueduct bridge, which crosses the great 
road leading from Edinburgh to Glasgow. At Kirkintul- 
lock, the canal is carried over the writer of Logie, on an 
aqueduct bridge, the arch of which is ninety feet broad. 
There are in the whole eighteen draw bridges, and fifteen 
aqueduct bridges, of considerable size, besides small ones 
and tunnels.” 

The supplying the canal with water, was of itself a very 
great work. One reservoir is above twenty-four feet 
deep, and covers a surface of fifty acres, near Kilsyth. 
Another, about seven miles north of Glasgow, consists of 
seventy acres, and is banked up at the sluice, twenty-two 
feet. 

The distance between the Firths of Clyde, and Forth, 
by the nearest passage, that of the Pentland Firth, is 600 
miles, by this canal scarcely 100. On the 28th of July, 
1790, the canal was completely open from sea to sea, 
when a hogshead of the water of Forth was poured into the 
Clyde, as a symbol of their junction. 

Commerce. The commerce of Scotland, though 
on a smaller scale, is similar to that of England, and par¬ 
takes of the national prosperity. The chief exports are 
linen, grain, iron, glass, lead, woollens, See. The imports 
are wines, brandy, rum, sugar, rice, indigo, cotton, tobacco. 
The fisheries are a growing part of the national wealth. 
The principal manufactures are linen of various kinds, to 
the value, it is said, of 750,000/. annually. Of woollens, 
Scotch cai pets seem to form the most conspicuous branch. 

1 he iron manufactures of Garron are deservedly famous. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of Scotland 
is such as might be expected from its insular situation, 
and high latitude. In the east there is not so much hu¬ 
midity as in England, as the mountains on the west arrest 


SCOTLAND. 


67 

the vapours from the Atlantic. On the other hand, the 
^estei n counties are deluded with ram. Even the winter 
is more distinguishable for the quantity of snow, than the 
intensity of the frost. In the summer, the heat in the 
valleys is reflected with great power. These observations 
apply chiefly to the north and west. In the east and south, 
the climate differs but little from that of Yorkshire. 

Soil and Agriculture. For a minute account 
of the various soils that prevail in Scotland, and the dif¬ 
ferent modes of Agriculture, the reader must be referred 
to the Statistical Accounts, published by Sir John Sinclair. 
I he excellence of the English agriculture, lias justly en¬ 
titled it to an imitation almost universal. But this advan¬ 
tage is of recent date ; and, for a long period of time, 
Scotland was remarkable for producing the best gardeners 
and the worst farmers in Europe. 

Rivers. The three chief rivers of Scotland, are 
the Forth, the Clyde, and the Tay. The chief source of 
the Forth is from Ben Lomond, or rather from the two 
lakes, Con and Ard: and about four miles above Sterling, 
it forms a noble stream. 

The Clyde is said to issue from a hill in the S. E. cor¬ 
ner of Tweeddale, called Arrik Stane, which is undoubt¬ 
edly the chief source of the Tweed, and one source of the 
Annan ; but the Clyde has a more remote source in Kir- 
shop, or Dair water, rising about six miles further to the 
south, in the very extremity of Lanarkshire. 

The principal source of the Tay, is the lake of the same 
name, or the river may be traced to the more westerly 
sources of the Attrick and the Dochart, and the smaller 
stream of Locy ; which fall into the western extremity of 
Loch Tay. The streams of Ericht and Hay, swell the 
Tay, about nine miles to the north of Perth ; after passing 
which city it receives the venerable stream of the Ern, and 
spreads into a wide estuary. 

Next in consequence and in fame, is the Tweed, a beau¬ 
tiful and pastoral stream, which, receiving the Teviot from 
the south, near Kelso, falls into the sea at Berwick. 

Lakes. Scotland abounds in lakes, by the inha¬ 
bitants called lochs : the principal of which are the loch 
Tay, the loch Lomond,, and the loch Du. They also gi Ve 
the name of loch to an arm of the sea, of which loch Tin 


68 


SCOTLAND. 


is one, and is 60 miles long and 4 broad. On the top of a 
hill near Lochness, accounted near two miles perpendicu¬ 
lar, is a lake of fresh water, about sixty yards in length, 
and thought to be unfathomable ; this lake never freezes, 
whereas the loch-anwyn, or green lake, about 17 miles 
from it, is perpetually covered with ice. 

Mountains. One of the most striking features 
of Scotland is its numerous mountains : the chief of which 
are the Grampian Hills forming the southern boundary of 
the Highlands : the Pentland hills; Lamermoor ; and the 
Cheviot hills. Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in 
Great Britain, being 4,350 feet above the level of the sea 
—and yet this is not much above the quarter of the height 
of Mont Blanc. This mountain on the N. E. presents a 
precipice almost perpendicular, of 1500 feet in depth ; and 
affords from its summit a grand view of the circumjacent 
country, to the extent of about eighty miles. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
soil varies in different parts of the country. It is not in 
general as fertile as that of England, but as the spirit of 
improvement has spread through the country, its aspect 
is changing fast for the better. Many spots which were 
formerly nothing but barren heath, now exhibit thriving 
plantations. The vegetable productions of the low-lands 
are much the same as those of England, but they do not 
arrive so early at maturity. The high-lands still contain 
many extensive sterile tracts; the soil indeed in many 
places seems only adapted to the propagation of firs.—The 
animals of Scotland are pretty much the same as those 
of England. The high-lands are stocked with red-deer, 
roe-bucks, hares, rabbits, foxes, wild cats, and badgers; 
and the hills in general are covered with black cattle and 
sheep. Grouse and the heath-cock, the capperkailly and 
plarmacan are found here. The two letter are esteemed 
great delicacies.—The horses in Scotland are exceedingly 
small, and great pains have been taken formerly to im¬ 
prove the breed, by importing a large and more noble kind 
from the Continent, but the soil and climate are so un¬ 
favourable, that the cattle always degenerated.—Scotland 
abounds in its seas, rivers and lakes with fish of all kinds, 
and contributes great supplies to the English market, par- 

ticularlv in lobsters and salmon. 

« 


SCOTLAND. 


69 


Minerals. The chief minerals of Scotland are 
lead, iron, and coal. The lead-mines in the south of La¬ 
narkshire have been long known. Those of Wanlock- 
head are in the immediate neighbourhood, but in the 
county of Dumfries. Some slight veins of lead have also 
been found in the western Highlands, particularly Arran. 
Iron is found in various parts of Scotland ; the Carron ore 
is the most known, it is an.argillaceous iron-stone, and is 
ound in slaty masses, and in nodules, in an adjacent coal¬ 
mine, of which it sometimes forms the roof. At the Car- 
ron-works this ore is often smelted with the red greasy 
iron ore from Ulverston, in Lancashire, which imparts 
easier fusion, and superior value. Calamine, or zinc, is 
also found at Wanlock-head ; and it is said, that plumbago 
and antimony may be traced in Scotland. 

But the chief mineral is coal, which has been worked 
for a succession of ages. Pope Pius II. in his description 
of Europe, written about 1450 , mentions that he beheld 
with wonder, black stones given as alms to the poor of 
Scotland. The Lothians and Fifeshire particularly abound 
with this useful mineral, which also extends into Ayr¬ 
shire ; and near Irwin is found coal, of a curious kind, 
called ribbon coal. 

Scotish Islands. The northern and western 
sides of Scotland are begirt with numerous small islands ; 
on the west lie the Hebrides, or western Islands ; on the 
north, the Orkneys, or Orcades, and still farther north 
the islands of Shetland, where the hardy inhabitants derive 
much of their sustenance from climbing the stupendous 
rocks, in search of birds and their nests, which multiply 
there in astonishing abundance. 


IRELAND. 


THE large and fertile island of Ireland, being situated 
to the west of Great Britain, was probably discovered 
by the Phoenicians as early as the sister island ; and it ap¬ 
pears that the island was known to the Greeks by the 
name of Juverna, about two centuries before the birth of 
Christ. When Caesar made his expedition into Britain, 
he describes Hibernia as being about half the size of the 
island which he had explored. As the country had be¬ 
come more and more known, the Romans discovered that 
the ruling people in Ireland were the Scoti, and thence¬ 
forth the country began to be termed Scotia ; an appella¬ 
tion retained by the monastic writers till the eleventh cen¬ 
tury, when the name Scotia having passed to modern 
Scotland, the ancient name of Hibernia began to reassume 
its honours. 

Extent. The extent of this island is about 300 
miles in length, and about 160 at the greatest breadth. 
The contents in square miles are about 2?,457, which 
reckoning the population at 3,000,000, will be about 114 
persons to a square mile. 

Original Population. It is probable this island 
was first peopled by adventurers from Gaul, who were 
followed by their brethren the Guydill from England. 
About the time that the Belgas seized on the south of 
England, kindred Gothic tribes passed into Ireland. These 
are the Firbolg of the Irish traditions, and were denomi¬ 
nated Scoti by the Romans, as they had made themselves 





IRELAND. 


71 


known, not only by extending their conquests in Ireland, 
but by invading the Roman province of Britain. 

Historical Epochs. The first historical epoch 
of Ireland is its population by the Celtic Gauls, and at a 
subsequent period, by the Belgac. 

2. The conversion of Ireland to Christianity in the fifth 
century, which was followed by a singular effect ; for 
while the mass of the people retained all the ferocity of 
savage manners, the monasteries produced many men of 
such piety and learning, that Scotia or Ireland became ce¬ 
lebrated all over Christendom. 

3. The lustre diminished by the ravages of the Scan¬ 
dinavians, which began with the ninth century, and can 
hardly be said to have ceased when the English settlement 
commenced. The island split into numerous principali¬ 
ties, or kingdoms. The constant dissentions of so many 
small tribes rendered the island an easy prey. 

4. In the year 1170, Henry II. permitted Richard 
Strongbow Earl of Pembroke to effect a settlement in 
Ireland, which laid the foundation of the English posses¬ 
sions in that country. 

5. Ireland began to produce some manufactures about 
the fourteenth century, and ker-sayes or thin woollen 
cloths were exported to Italy. 

6. Richard II. king of England, attempted in person 
the conquest of Ireland, but being imprudent and ill-serv¬ 
ed, nothing of moment was effected. 

7. In the reign of James I. Ireland became entirely sub¬ 
jugated ; and colonies of English and Scotch were estab¬ 
lished in the north. 

8. The Irish, instigated by their fanatic priests, execut¬ 
ed a dreadful massacre of the English settlers in 1641. 
This insurrection was not totally crushed till Cromwell led 
his veterans into Ireland. 

9. The appearance of James II. in Ireland to reclaim his 
crown, may also deserve a place. 

10. The amazing progress of Ireland in manufactures 
and commerce, within these twenty years, may be classed 
as the most illustrious of its historical epochs. 

11. Its union with Great Britain. 

Religion. The legal religion of Ireland is that 
of the church of England ; but it is computed that two- 


72 


IRELAND. 


thirds of the people are Catholics ; and of the remaining; 
third the Presbyterians are supposed to constitute one half. 

The ecclesiastical discipline of the established church 
is the same as in England. The Catholics retain their 
nominal bishops and dignitaries, who subsist by the vo¬ 
luntary contributions of their votaries ; but notwithstand¬ 
ing the blind superstition and ignorance of the latter, Pro¬ 
testantism increases every year. The institution of the 
Protestant-working schools has contributed much to this 
salutary purpose. 

The Arch-Bishoprics in Ireland are four; Armagh, 
Dublin, Cashel and Tuam.—The Bishoprics are eighteen, 
viz. Clogher, Clonfert, Cloyne, Cork, Derry, Down, Dro- 
more, Elphin, hildare, Killala, Kilmore, Killaloe, Leigh- 
lin, Limerick, Meath, Ossory, Raphoe and Waterford. 

Government. Ireland being now happily united 
with England, the form of government of course is identi¬ 
cally the same, except in some minute variations between 
the statute and common laws of the two islands. 

Civil Division. Ireland is divided into four pro¬ 
vinces, viz. Ulster to the north, which contains nine 
counties; Connaught to the west, five counties ; Leinster 
to the east, twelve counties; and Munster to the south, 
six counties. 

Population. Agreeably to the most authentic 
documents, the population of Ireland is about three mil¬ 
lions, of which near two-thirds are Roman Catholics, al¬ 
though these latter do not possess one-third of the property 
real and personal. 

Military Strength. In consequence of the 
late rebellion, and the threats of a French invasion, a very 
considerable military force is now kept up in Ireland, viz. 

Regulars, 45,839. 

Militia, 27,104. 

Yeomanry, 53,557. 


126,500. 

Revenue. The public revenues of Ireland wefe 
computed by a late intelligent traveller at about one 
million sterling, or about 6s. 8 d. per head, when those of 
England were as high as 29s.—But a great proportion of 



IRELAND. 


*T 

4 O 


the emigrants who have made their escape to the United 
States, and have clamoured so loudly cf their oppressions, 

never paid any public taxes whatever in their native 
country. 

Manners and Customs. With respect to the 
present descendants of the old Irish, they are generally 
represented as an ignorant, uncivilized and blundering 
people, impatient of abuse and injury, they are impla¬ 
cable and violent in all their affections ; but quick of appre¬ 
hension, courteous to strangers, and inured to hardships. 
Some of the old uncouth customs still prevail among 
them, particularly their funeral howlings, and the plac* 
i»g a dead corpse before their doors, laid out on tables, 
having a plate on the body to excite the charity of passen¬ 
gers. Their convivial meetings on Sunday afternoon, with 
dancing to the bagpipe, and more often quarrelling among 
themselves, are offensive to every civilized traveller. '1 heir 
diet consists chiefly of buttermilk and potatoes; and their 
cottages are wretched hovels of mud. The manners of 
the superior classes of people now nearly approach to 
the English standard, and will be more assimilated by the 
influence of the union. 

Schools. The literature of Ireland has a vener¬ 
able claim to antiquity. The Anglo-Saxons, in particular, 
derived their first illumination from Ireland ; and in Scot¬ 
land literature continued to be the special province of the 
Irish clergy, till the thirteenth century: but the nation 
sunk again into the grossest ignorance. 

It is to be hoped that one consequence, and not the least 
important of the union, will be the introduction of paro¬ 
chial education into Ireland, as the surest mean of pre¬ 
venting the ebullitions of ignorant discontent, of drunken¬ 
ness and rebellion. 

With four archbishoprics Ireland only possesses one 
university, that of Dublin. This institution was first 
projected by archbishop Leech, about the year 1311 ; 
but death having interrupted his design, it was revived 
and executed by Bicknor his successor, and enjoyed mo¬ 
derate prosperity for about forty years, when the revenues 
failed. 

In the reign of Elizabeth, the university was refounded 
by voluntary contribution, under the auspicies of Sidney 

G 


74 


IRELAND. 


the Lord Deputy. It consists of a chancellor, vice-chan¬ 
cellor, provost, vice-provost, twenty-two fellows, and thir¬ 
teen professors of various sciences. 1 he number oi stu¬ 
dents is commonly about four hundred, including seventy 
on the foundation. The building consists of two qua¬ 
drangles, and it contains a library of some account, and a 

printing-office. t . c 

Cities and Towns. Dublin the capital city ot 

Ireland seems to be the Eblana of I tolemy ; but continued 
little known till the tenth century, when it was mentioned 
in the Saxon Chronicle ; and in the beginning of the next 
century, we have coins of Canute stiuck at Dublin. T. he 
situation is delightful, in a bottom, between ranges of hills 
on the south and north. It is pervaded by the river Liny, 
and by some rivulets. The inhabitants have been esti¬ 
mated at 150,000 ; this capital being justly accounted the 
second in the British dominions. 

In proceeding to give an account of the other principal 
towns and cities of Ireland, Cork, and Limerick attract the 
first attention. Cork is a city of considerable importance, 
situated on the south-east side of the island, and supposed 
to contain about 70,000 inhabitants. It is the grand mar¬ 
ket of Irish provisions ; and it was computed that not less 
than a hundred thousand cattle were here annually killed 
and salted between the months of August and January. 
The duties of the harbour, in 175 1 were 62,000/. and in 
1779, 140,000/. a prodigious improvement in twenty-eight 
years. 

Limerick unites the fortunate situation of being almost 
central to the south of Ireland, with an excellent haven, 
formed by the long estuary of the river Shannon. The 
city is accounted the third in Ireland, and was formerly 
fortified with great care. There are three bridges over 
the river, one of which consists of fourteen arches. The 
number of inhabitants has been computed at 50,000. The 
chief exports are beef and other provisions. 

Gahvav is a town of considerable note, and carries on an 
extensive trade with the West Indies, 'f he port is com¬ 
modious and safe, but distant from the city, which can 
only be reached by vessels of small burden : the number 
of inhabitants is computed at 12,000. 


IRELAND. 


7 5 

Londonderry is more remarkable for its ancient and 
military fame than for its present commerce, though not 
unimportant. It stands on the river Eoyle, over which a 
wooden bridge of singular construction, one thousand and 
sixty-eight feet in length, was thrown in 1791. 

Belfast on the north-east is in the centre of the linen 
manufactures, and may almost be regarded as a Scottish 
colony. The inhabitants are computed at 18,000. The 
chief manufactures, cotton, cambric, sail-cloth, linen, with 
glass, sugar, and earthen-ware. It maintains considerable 
intercourse with the commercial city of Glasgow ; and 
the grand exports are to the West Indies and America. 

Waterford is a city of considerable importance, situat¬ 
ed on the river Suir, and is supposed to have been founded 
by the Danes. It suffered greatly in the late disorders ; 
and the inhabitants cannot now be supposed to exceed 
30,000. The chief exports are beef, pork, &c. and linen. 
Packet-boats sail regularly betwixt Waterford and Milford 
Haven. 

Edifices. The chief edifices of Ireland are con¬ 
fined to the capital. The cathedrals seldom aspire to 
great praise of architecture; and the villas of the nobility 
generally yield in splendour to those of England, and 
even of Scotland. 

Inland Navigation. The advantages derived 
by England from inland navigation soon attracted the at¬ 
tention of Ireland ; and not many years after the example 
set by the Duke of Bridgewater, a grand canal was begun 
from the city of Dublin to the river Shannon, and was^ac- 
tually carried on to the bog of Allen, at the expence of 
77,000/. But the engineer’s want of ability occasioned 
great errors in the original plan and survey ; and the work 
was interrupted in 1770. 

A canal is completed from the town of Newry to the 
sea, which was, however, intended to have passed that 
town towards the collieries of Drumgiass and Dungannon. 
This attempt, however, to supply Dublin with Irish coals, 
has hitherto been only successful in part, though the beds 
of coals are said to be very abundant. 

Manufactures and Commerce. Though we 
find that Ireland was distinguished at an early period for 
her manufacture of woollen-stuffs, yet the spirit of industry 


i 


76 


IRELAND. 


made little progress, and the chief Irish manufactures are 
Oi recent institution. But the linen manufacture was not un¬ 
known in Ireland in more early times, as appears from the 
acts of parliament in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Eliza¬ 
beth. The annual produce of the linen manufacture is com¬ 
puted at about 2,000,000/. sterling: and the average of all 
the exports of Ireland is between four and five millions. 

Climate. Ireland lying nearly in the same pa¬ 
rallel with England, the difference of climate cannot be 
supposed to be very important. The mean temperature 
of the north is about 48 ; of the middle 50 ; of the south 
52 of Fahrenhe't. 

boiL and Agriculture. Mr. It oung observes, 
that the quantity of the cultivated land exceeds, in propor¬ 
tion, that ot England. I he most striking feature is the 
rocky nature of the soil, stones generally appearing on 
the surface, yet without any injury to the fertility ; even 
in the most flat and fertile parts, as Limerick, Tipperary, 
and Meath. The climate being more moist than that of 
England, the verdure never appears parched with heat. 
Tillage is little understood, even in the best corn coun¬ 
ties; turnips and clover being almost unknown. The 
farmers are oppressed by a class of middle men , who rent 
farms from the landlords, and let them to the real occu¬ 
piers. Lime-stone gravel is a manure peculiar to Ireland ; 
having, on uncultivated land, the same wonderful effects as 
lime, and on all soils it is beneficial. 

Rivers. Among the chief rivers of Ireland must 
be mentioned the Shannon, which rises from the lake of 
Allen; and passing through two other large lakes, extends 
below Limerick, into a vast estuary or firth, about sixty 
miles in length, and from three to ten in breadth. This 
noble river is, almost through its whole course, so wide 
and deep, as to afford easy navigation. The other princi¬ 
pal rivers are the Barrow, Nour, Suir, Banna, Lee, Liffy 
and Boyne. 

I he lakes of Ireland are numerous, and some of them 
extensive. The chief lake of fresh water is that of Earn, 
which exceeds thirty British miles in length, and twelve 
in its gi eatest breadth; it is divided by a narrow outlet 
from the southern part into the northern, of about four 
miles in length. 


IRELAND. 


77 


Next in magnitude is Neagh, about twenty-two miles in 
length, and twelve in breadth. Both these lakes are stud- 
ed with small islands ; and the latter is said to possess a 
petrifying quality. 

i he lake of Corrib, in the county of Galway, is about 
twenty miles in length, and from two to five wide. 

Among the lakes of the second magnitude we will only 
mention the beautiful and interestingLough of killarney 
in the S. W. abounding with romantic views, and fringed 
with the arbutus, no where else a native of the British 
dominions. 

Mountains. Among the highest mountains in 
Ireland are the mountains of Carlingford, the Curlieus, 
which separate the counties of Sligo and Roscommon; 
those in the county of Donegal; the Maneuton mountains 
in the county °f Kerry; Croah Patrick in the county of 

Mayo; and the Galtee mountains, in the county of Tip¬ 
perary. 

R°gs. These are numerous in Ireland, and are 
of different kinds. Some are grassy, in which the water 
being concealed by the herbage, they are extremely peril¬ 
ous to travellers ; others are pools of water and mire ; and 
others are hassocky bogs, or shallow lakes studded with 
tufts of rushes—and lastly the peat moors. Ornaments 
of gold, and other relics of antiquity have been found, from 
time to time, in the bogs at great depths. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. There 
is little under this head that is peculiar to Ireland, her 
productions being mostly similar to those of England and 
Scotland. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of Ireland has been 
recently celebrated for the discovery of considerable 
masses of native gold, in the county of Wicklow, to the 
south of Dublin. It is reported that a jeweller who lately 
died in Dublin, often declared that gold taken from that 
spot, had passed through his hands to the value of 30,000/. 

It is now worked for government, and it is said that a very 
massy vein has been recently discovered. The silver found 
in the Irish mines mingled with lead deserve more atten¬ 
tion. One of these mines in the county of Antrim, yielded 
a pound of pure silver to thirty pounds of lead. Ireland 

G 2 


78 


IRELAND. 


likewise possesses some mines of copper, and some of 
coal, the latter perhaps as pure as any in the world. 

Natural Curiosities. What is called the 
Giant’s Causeway, must be distinguished as the most re¬ 
markable curiosity in Ireland. This surprising collection 
of basaltic pillars is about eight miles N. E. from Cole¬ 
raine ; and projects into the sea to an unknown extent. 
The part explored is about 600 feet in length ; the breadth 
■from 240 to 120 feet; and the height from 16 to 36 feet 
above the level of the strand. It consists of many thou¬ 
sand pillars, mostly of a pentagonal form, in a vertical po¬ 
sition, all of them separate, though close together, so as 
to form a pavement, of gradual ascent. In the days of 
ignorance, this was considered as a stupendous work of 
art, but it is now more justly viewed as a rare natural 
phenomenon. 


FRANCE. 


FRANCE is deservedly considered amongst the. 
most eminent European states.—In the year 600 " before 
Christ the Phocasans, sailing from Ionia, founded Massilia, 
now called ^Marseilles. T he more ancient inhabitants were 

Celts, the aborigines of great part of western Europe._ 

The southern parts of Gaul (the original name of the 
country) became known at an early period to the Romans, 
who entered that region about 120 years before the Chris¬ 
tian asra, and soon afterwards founded the province termed 
Gallia Bracata, from bracca, a sort of breeches worn by 
the inhabitants ; but the remainder of this extensive and 
fertile country was reserved for the conquering arms 
of Julius Caesar. On the decline of the Roman empire it 
was over-run by the Franks, an assemblage of tribes from 
lower Germany, and from them it received its present de¬ 
nomination. 

Extent. The extent of France before the re¬ 
cent acquisitions, was computed at 148,840 square miles ; 
and supposing the then population to be 26,000,000^ 
would render 174 inhabitants to each mile square. The 
boundaries were, on the west, the Atlantic ocean ; on the 
south, the Mediterranean and Pyrenees ; on the east, 
Savoy, Swisserland, and Germany; on the north, the Aus¬ 
trian Netherlands, the German sea, and English Channel. 
It extends from about the 42d to near the 51st degree of 
N. latitude ; from about the 7th degree of longitude west 
from Paris, to about the 5th on the east; being in length, 




80 


FRANCE. 


N. to S. about 600 British miles, and in breadth, W. to E. 
about 5 60 . 

Original Population. The primitive inhabi¬ 
tants were the Celts, to whom no anterior people can be 
traced in the western regions of Europe; but on the S. 
W. the Aquitani, of African descent, had passed from 
Spain; and on the N. E. the warlike German tribes, 
known by the name of Belgae, had seized on a third part 
of the country, where they introduced the Gothic lan¬ 
guage and manners. On the S. also the German Gauls 
had diffused themselves into what was called Gallia Bra- 
cata: nor must the Greek colonies be forgotten. The 
solidity and duration of the Roman conquests diffused the 
Latin language through all ranks, together with their laws 
and governments 

Divisions. Before the revolution this kingdom 
was divided into provinces. The national assembly, intent 
on destroying; every ancient vestige, thought proper to 
parcel it out into eighty-three departments. T he recent 
conquests have been moulded to a similar form, under the 
name of re-united departments, making an addition of 
eighteen, besides the latter annexation of Piedmont and 
the isle of Elba. 

Historical Epochs. 1 . The primitive popu¬ 
lation of the Celts, and the conquests of the Aquitani, and 
Belgae. 

2. The complete conquest of the country by Julius 
Caesar. 

3. Its reduction by the Franks under Clovis, about the 
year 490, and the conversion of the Pranks to the Chris¬ 
tian faith, five years after that period. 

4. The obscure and distracted history of the Merovin¬ 
gian race, till its final extinction in the middle of the eighth 
century. 

5 The Carlovingian race, which ascended the throne 
in the year 752, and was followed, twenty years after¬ 
wards, by the celebrated reign of Charlemagne, who car¬ 
ried the power of France to the utmost extent and splen¬ 
dour, having in particular, subdued the greatest part of 
Germany, where he became the founder and first sove¬ 
reign of what has since been styled the German Em- 


81 


FRANCE. 

pile, A. D. 800, and which remained with his descendants 
lor near a century. 

6. 1 he accession of the house of Capet in the year 987. 

7. i he crusades in which the French bore the chief 
sway. 

1 wars with England. The acquisition of France 
by Henry V. and its deliverance by the Maid of Orleans, 
or rather by Charles \ II. styled the victorious. 

9. 1 he reign of Lewis XI. who, crushing such power¬ 
ful princes as were left after the English shock, may be 
regarded as the father of absolute monarchy. 

10. The reign of Francis I. called the father of the arts 
and letters, during which the French, who had been re¬ 
garded as barbarians by the more civilized people of Italy, 
began, on the contrary, to be distinguished by superior 
refinement. This is also the first epoch of a standing army 
in Europe. 

11. The intestine commotions with the Protestants, and 
massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

12. The reign of Henry IV. 

13. That of Louis XIV. too much extolled by the French, 
and too much degraded by other nations. 

14. The recent revolution, or revolutions which have 
followed one another with a rapidity that has astonished 
Europe, and which in the singularity and importance of 
the events, rival the pages of ancient history. 

Antiquities. Several ancient monuments exist 
in France which are ascribed to the first epoch. The Greek 
colony at Marseilles seems to have imparted some degree 
of civilization to the country, and the rude Gallic coins are 
evidently an imitation of the Grecian model. 

The Roman antiquities in France are numerous, and 
some of them in excellent preservation. Those at Nismes 
are particularly celebrated, consisting chiefly of an amphi¬ 
theatre, and the temple called La Maison Carre. 

The disclosure of the grave of Childeric, near Tournay, 
in the last century presented some of the most curious 
fragments. In an old tower of St. Germain du Fie are 
representations of several of the first monarchs cf the 
Franks, and many of their effigies were preserved on their 
tombs at St. Dennis and other places, till the late revolu¬ 
tion. 


82 


FRANCE. 


The monuments of the Carlovingian race are yet more 
numerous, and Roman mosaics have illustrated the fame 
ol Charlemagne. Of the later periods one of the most 
singular is the suit of tapestry, preserved in the Cathedral 
church of Bayeux, representing the beginning and ter¬ 
mination of the grand contest between William and 
Harold, which led to the conquest of England by the 
Normans, ft is said to have been the work of Matiida, 
wife of W illiam ; and bears every mark of that remote 
antiquity. 

Religion. The religion of France is the Roman 
Catholic, but the Galilean church, since its re-establish¬ 
ment by Bonaparte, has been considerably modified and 
rendered almost wholly independent on Roman influence. 

Government. To attempt to describe the present 
government of France would be as vague as writing on the 
sands of a troubled ocean. Equally futile would be the at¬ 
tempt to describe laws, where there is no code ; and which 
fluctuate according to the despotism or clemency of the 
rulers. At present the government, both in form and 
spirit, is a mere military despotism, the two senates being 
the passive instruments of the commander in chief, who 
has styled himself Emperor of the French. 

Population. I he population of France was for- 
meily computed at 26,000,000, but the recent acquisitions, 
if durable, would swell it to the formidable extent of 
34,000,000. At all events France is a country teeming 
with population, and quickly resumes her vigour after stu¬ 
pendous losses, as Europe has repeatedly experienced. 

Colonies. The French colonies are at present 
unimpoi tant, and it is probable wull be lost for ever, if the 
"war which now rages, should continue a few years ; and of 
course the maritime importance of the nation will be almost 
annihilated. 

Army. The political convulsions which have agi¬ 
tated this unhappy country, and yet more the despotism 
ot its rulers have occasionally, within these few years, 
swelled the french armies to the amazing computation of 
upwards of.a million. By a statement lately published, in 
the^to/ Mililciire , they now consist of 110 demi-brir-ades 
ol .>,200 each ; ol 30 light demi-brigades of the same 
compument; eight regiments of foot artillery, each of 


FRANCE. 


83 


20 companies ; eight of horse artillery, each of 466 men ; 
26 regiments of cavalry; and 20 regiments of dragoons*, 
each ol 800 men ; 25 regiments of chasseurs, and ?2 re¬ 
giments of hussars, of the like number. The whole ex¬ 
clusive of engineers, miners, See. forming a force of 
413,728. 

Navy. The maritime power of France was for¬ 
midable even to England, till the battle of La Hogue, 
since which the British flag has reigned triumphant on 
the ocean, and the struggles of France, though often ener¬ 
getic, have encountered the fixed destiny of inevitable de¬ 
feat. 

Revenue. The revenue of France was formerly 
computed at about 30,000,000/. sterling ; from which, after 
deducting the expence of collection, and the payment of 
the interest on the national debt, there remained clear 
about 18,000,000 ; but any attempt to calculate the present 
state of the revenue must be vague and inconclusive : One 
half of it, perhaps, is wrung from allies and neutrals, the 
United States not excepted. 

The common current money of France has been com¬ 
puted at 90,000,00 01. sterling, while that of Great Britain 
has been estimated at 40 000,000/. The late conquests 
have enriched France, and especially Paris, with the ra¬ 
pine of many provinces ; and the generals vie with the Ro¬ 
mans in wealth and luxury : in a coarse imitation of their 
worst vices. 

Political Importance and Relations. The 
political importance and relations of France continue to 
be vast; nor was the prodigious power of this state ever 
so completely felt and acknowledged, as after a revolution 
and a war which threatened her very existence. When 
expected to fall an easy prey, she suddenly arose the ag¬ 
gressor, and has astonished Europe by the rapidity and 
extent of her victories. The rivalry of many centuries 
between France and Idngland sunk into a petty dispute, 
when compared with this mighty contest, which will be 
felt and deplored by distant posterity. Yet, by the pro¬ 
tection of all-ruling providence, the British empire has 
risen superior to the struggles, and remained free from 
those scenes of carnage and devastation, which attended 
the French progress into other countries ; and the French 


84 


FRANCE. 


navy being reduced to so insignificant a force, Great Bri¬ 
tain has less to apprehend from France, than at any former 
period. The other powers of Europe, except Russia and 
the northern states, are either victims or associates of the 
ambitious projects of their common enemy. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the French have been often delineated, but with 
great deviation from the true likeness. The most pleasing 
parts of the portrait are vivacity, gaiety, politeness, and a 
singular disposition towards social enjoyments. On the 
other hand ancient and recent events conspire to affix a 
sanguinary stain and a rapacity on the national character, 
which are hardly reconcileable to so much gaiety, and 
seeming benevolence. 

The ancient and rooted enmity between England and 
France nourished many prejudices against the French 
character, which have since disappeared in the reports of 
more candid authors. Yet, with travellers accustomed to 
the elegance of English life, many of the French manners 
and customs cannot be reconciled to ideas of physical pu¬ 
rity ; and the looseness of morals, in regard to the sex, has 
become proverbial. The republican form of government 
has only spread the contagion wider, nor has the liberty of 
divorce proved any bond of chastity. 

Language. The French language is the most 
universally diffused of any in the courts of Europe; and the 
consequence is felt in the variety and extent of their in¬ 
trigues. In variety, clearness, and precision, and idioms 
adapted to life, business, and pleasure, it yields to no mo¬ 
dern speech : but it wants force and dignity, and yet more 
sublimity. The French language is "a well known cor¬ 
ruption of the Roman, mingled with Celtic and Gothic 
words and idioms. But while the Italian remains the 
same from the days of Dante and Petrarca, through a lapse 
of 500 years, the epoch of classical purity of the French 
language commences with the reign of Louis XIV. The 
recent revolution has introduced such exuberance of new 
words and phrases, that a neological dictionary is required 
to explain them. 

public schools. 1 he state of education in all 
the Catholic countries was very defective till the Jesuits 
gave great attention to this important department ; to 


FRANCE. 


as 

which, if their exertions had been solely directed they 
would have proved a most useful body of men. ^ 

At the time when this religious order was suppressed, 
France boasted of twenty-one universities; in the north, 
Douay, Caen, Paris, Rheims, Nanci, Strasburg; in the 
middle provinces, Nantes, Angers, Poitiers, Orleans, Bour¬ 
ses, Dijon, Besancon ; and in the south, Bourdeaux, Pau 
Perpignan, Toulouse, Montpellier, Aix, Orange, Valence! 
Of these the Sorbonne of Paris was the most celebrated; 
but it shewed an irremediable tendency to proion the 
reign ol scholastic theology. The academies and literary 
societies were computed at thirty-nine. Those of Paris 
in particular, have been long known to the learned world! 
by elegant and profound volumes of dissertations on the* 
sciences, and on the Belles Lettres. Nor have public in¬ 
stitutions of this kind been foreign to the consideration of 
the new government. 

Cities and Towns. The ample extent of this 
country displays a corresponding number of important 
cities and towns, of which we shall notice a few of the prin- 
cipal. Paris, the capital, rises on both sides the river 
Seine, in a pleasant and healthy situation, with delightful 
environs. It is divided into three parts ; the town, ville, 
on the north, the city in the middle, and that part called the 
university on the south. It is mentioned by Caesar as be¬ 
ing restricted in his time to an island in the midst of the 
Seine. An intelligent traveller supposes Paris to be one- 
third smaller than London : and the inhabitants probably 
amount to between 5 and 600,000. The houses are chiefly 
built with free stone, from quarries like catacombs, which 
run in various directions under the streets; so that an 
earthquake would be peculiarly destructive, and might com¬ 
pletely bury the city. The banks of the Seine present noble 
quays; and the public buildings are not only elegant in 
themselves, but are placed in open and commanding situa¬ 
tions. The Louvre is arranged among the best specimens 
of modern architecture; and the church of St. Genevieve, 
now the Pantheon, is also deservedly admired; nor must 
the Thuilleries, the Palais Royale, and Hospital of Invalids 
be forgotten. Paris, no doubt, exceeds London in magni¬ 
ficence, but yields greatly in cleanliness and convenience; 
and the streets generally without accommodation for foot 
passengers, loudly bespeak the inattention of the govern- 


86 


FRANCE. 


ment to the middle and lower classes of men. The revo¬ 
lution and its consequent rapine have enlarged and adorned 
the public collections ; and, by enriching numerous indivi¬ 
duals, has enabled them to increase their favourite city with 
new and beautiful streets and squares. 

Next to Paris in extent and population was the noble 
city of Lyons, which was supposed to contain about 100,000 
souls. As the chief manufactures were articles of luxury, 
silk, cloths of gold, and silver, &c. it was natural that this 
venerable town should be firmly attached to the ancient 
aristocracy, though with consequences incalculably fatal to 
its prosperity. During the infatuated reign of the jacobins 
it was besieged, captured, and, after the wildest and basest 
massacres, was doomed to final demolition. But as there 
are bounds even to rage and folly, this decree was only 
executed in part. Though Lyons will probably never re¬ 
cover its ancient extent and opulence. 

The third and fourth cities of France are Marseilles and 
Bourdeaux ; each peopled by about 80,000 souls. The 
foundation of Marseilles has been already mentioned, and 
the city remains worthy of its ancient fame, the port being 
at the same time one of the best and most frequented in 
the whole Mediterranean. The exchange is a noble build¬ 
ing, and the new parts of the city are beautiful. 

Bourdeaux was a prosperous city, but the trade must 
haye suffered great injury. The port is ample and com¬ 
modious, with extensive quays. The chief exports are 
wine and brandy, particularly the vin de Bourdeaux, which 
we term claret, because it is of a clear and transparent red, 
while tent and some other wines are opake. 

Edifices. Several of the most noble edifices of 
France are in Paris, and its vicinity. To those already 
mentioned must be added, the palace of Versailles, rather 
remarkable, however, for the profusion of expence, than 
for the skill of the architect; the parts being small and 
unharmonious, and the general effect rather idle pomp than 
true grandeur. The bridge of Neuille is esteemed the 
most beautiful in Europe, consisting of five wide arches of 
equal size. The ancient cathedrals and castles are nume¬ 
rous, but the latter are by no means conspicuous for their 
elegance or taste. 

Inland Navigation. The inland navigation of 
France has been promoted by several capital exertions. 


87 


FRANCE. 


The canal of Briare, otherwise styled that of Burgundy, 
opens a communication between the Loire and the Seine, 
or in other words between Paris and the western provinces. 
Passing by Montargis it joins the canal of Orleans, and 
falls into the Seine near Fontainbleau. 

The canal of Picardy extends from the Somme to the 
Oise, beginning at St. Quintin, and forming a convenient 
intercourse to the provinces in the N. E. 

But the chief work of this description is the celebrated 
canal of Languedoc, commenced and completed in the 
reign of Louis XIV. under the auspices of that able mi¬ 
nister Colbert. Fifteen years of labour were employed, 
from 1666 to 1681. This noble canal begins in the bay of 
Languedoc ; and at St. Ferriol is a reservoir of 595 acres 
of water; it enters the Garonne about a quarter of a mile 
below the city of Toulouse. The breadth, including the 
towing paths, is 144 feet; the depth six feet; the length 
64 French leagues, or about 180 miles. The expence was 
about half a million sterling. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The articles 
of commerce in France, are its wines, brandy, vinegar, 
fruits, as prunes, prunellos, dried grapes, pears, apples, 
oranges, and olives; drugs, oils, and chymical prepara¬ 
tions ; silks, embroidery, tapestry, cambrics, lawns, laces, 
brocades, and woollens, in imitation of the English; paper, 
parchment, and toys. 

From this detail some idea may be formed of the com¬ 
merce of France. By the account of 1784, which did not 
include Lorain or Alsace, nor the West India trade. 

Total Exports were 307,151,700 livres. 

Imports 271,365,000 


Balance 35,786,700, or 1,565,668/. sterling. 


The trade with the West Indies gave a large balance 
against France. 

O 


In the year 1783, the average 
Imports of France were about 
Exports, nearly, 
in the same year 
Imports of Great Britain were 
Exports, ditto. 


i 

i 


12,500,000/. sterling 
15,000,000 
18,000,000 
17,500,000 



88 


FRANCE. 


Since the beginning of the French revolution the com¬ 
merce ol England has been constantly increasing—while 
that of her envious rival has been almost annihilated. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of so ex¬ 
tensive a country as France, may be expected to be various. 
In general it is far more clear and serene than that of 
England ; but the northern provinces are exposed to heavy 
rains, which however produce beautiful verdure and rich* 
pastures. France may be divided into three climates, the 
northern, the central, and the southern. The first yields 
no wines ; the second no maize ; the third produces wines, 
maize and olives. These divisions proceed in an oblique 
line from the S. W. to the N. E. so as to demonstrate 
“ that the eastern part of the kingdom is two and a half de¬ 
grees of latitude hotter than the western, or if not hotter 
more favourable to vegetation.” 

Soil and Agriculture. The variations of the 
soil are very considerable. The N. E. part from Flanders 
to Orleans is a rich loam. Further to the W. the land 
is poor and stony ; Brittany gravel, or gravelly sand, with 
low ridges of granite. The chalk runs through the centre 
of the kingdom, from Germany by Champagne to Sain¬ 
ton ge ; and on the N. of the mountainous tract is a large 
extent of gravel, but even the mountainous region of the 
south is generally fertile, though the large province for¬ 
merly called Gascony presents many level heaths. 

The defects of French agriculture, consist in frequent 
fallows, while the English farmer obtains even superior 
crops of corn, by substituting turnips and other green crops 
to the fallows ; besides the clear profit from his clover, tur¬ 
nips or tares. 

In some of the provinces, however, the plans of agricul¬ 
ture correspond with the natural fertility of the soil; and 
others display a most laudable industry. There is a re¬ 
markable instance exhibited in the barren mountains of the 
Cevennes. As the waters which run down the sides carry 
considerable quantities of earth into the ravines, walls of 
loose stones are erected which permit the waters to pass 
when they are clear ; but when turbid their load of earth 
is gradually deposited against the wall, and affords a space 
of fertile soil. Successive ramparts are thus erected to the 
very top of the mountain ; and the water, having no longer 
a violent fall, only serves to nourish the crops, which are 


FRANCE. 


89 


moreover protected by planting fruit trees at certain inter¬ 
vals, so as to lend security and consistence to the new 
acquisition. 

Rt vers. Among the rivers of France four are most 
eminent; the Seine, the Loire, the Rhone, and the Ga¬ 
ronne. The first is one of the most beautiful streams of 
France : rising in the department of Cote D’Or, it pursues 
its course to the N. W. till it enters the English channel at 
Havre de Grace, after a course of about 250 English miles. 

The Loire derives its source from Mont Gerbier in the 
N. of ancient Languedoc; and after a northern course turns 
to the west, entering the ocean a considerable way beyond 
Nantes, after a course of about 500 miles. 

The Rhone springs from the Glacier of Furca, near the 
mountain of Grimsel in Swisserland ; and after passing the 
beautiful vales of the Vallais, and the lake of Geneva, bends 
its course towards the south, and enters the Mediterranean. 
The comparative course 400 miles. 

The Garonne rises in the vale of Arau in the Pyrenees. 
The course of this river is generally N. W. It extends to 
about 250 miles. After its junction with the Dordogne, it 
assumes the name of the Gironde, which gave its distinc¬ 
tive appellation to a faction that fell under the axe of Ro¬ 
bespierre. 

The principal mountains of France are in its southern 
departments. 

Mount Jura, a vanguard of the Alps, forms a boundary 
between France and Swisserland. If Mont Blanc be ad¬ 
mitted among the French mountains, the other Alps can¬ 
not rival its supreme elevation. The ancient province of 
Dauphine displays several Alpine branches, which also ex¬ 
tend through great part of Provence. 

The grand chain of the Cevennes seems to run from N. 
to S. and to send out branches towards the E. and W. 
The northern part of the chain is styled the Puy de Dome, 
while the southern is called that of Cantal. The Monts 
D’Or form the centre, and are the highest mountains in 
France. The chief elevation is that of the Puy de Sanfi, 
capped with perpetual snow, which rises about 6,300 feet 
above the level of the sea, while the Puy de Dome is about 
5000, and the Piomb du Cantal, the highest of that part, is 
about 6,200 feet. On the 23d of June, 1727, Pradines, a 
village on the slope of one of these mountains, was totally 

II 2 


90 


FRANCE. 


overwhelmed, the whole mountain with its basaltic columns, 
rolling’ into the valley. The inhabitants were fortunately 
engaged in the celebration of midsummer eve, around a 
bonfire at some distance from the mountain. 

The Pyrenees remain to be described. To the surprise 
of naturalists, they have been found to present calcareous 
appearances, and even shells and skeletons of animals, near 
or upon their highest summits, which are in the centre of 
the chain. Mont Perdu is considered as the highest ele¬ 
vation of the Pyrenees, ascending above the sea 1751 
French toises, or about 11,000 feet English. The Py¬ 
renean chain appears at a distance like "a shaggy ridge, 
presenting the segment of a circle fronting France, and 
descending at each extremity till it disappears in the ocean 
and Mediterranean. 

Perdu is of very difficult access, as the calcareous rock 
often assumes the form of perpendicular walls, from 100 
to 600 feet in height; and the snows, ice, and glaciers, en- 
crease the difficulty. Near the summit is a considerable 
lake, more than 9000 feet above the level of the sea, which 
throws its waters to the east into the Spanish valley of 
Beoussa.' 

\ EGETABLE AND ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. So 
great indeed is the extent and so various the climate of 
France that probably more than half the European species 
of plants may be found within its boundaries. That coun¬ 
try which produces in full and equal perfection wheat and 
apples, maize, and grapes, oranges and olives, the oak and 
the myrtle, must doubtless exceed all other European 
countries of equal extent in the variety and richness of its 
vegetable treasures; but a bare enumeration of them would 
occupy more room than can be allotted to them in a work 
like the present. 

The horses of France do not appear to have been cele¬ 
brated at any period; and it is well known that the ancient 
monarchs were drawn to the national assemblies by oxen. 
Many English horses are in times of peace imported for 
ihe coach and the saddle. 1 he best native horses for 
draught, are those of Normandy; for the saddle, those of 
the Limo^in, which have been recently improved by cross¬ 
ing the breed with the Arabian, Turkish, and English. 
But the greater number of horses in France consists of Bi¬ 
dets, small animals of little show, but great utility. The 


91 


FRANCE. 

cattle of Limoges, and some other provinces, are of a beau¬ 
tiful cream colour. Fhe sheep are ill managed, having in 
winter only straw, instead of green food as in England. '1 he 
consequences are poor fleeces, and rarity of sheep, so that 
the poor are forced to eat bread only, and large quantities 
of wool are imported. Of ferocious animals the most re¬ 
markable are the wild boar and the wolf; the ibex and 
chamois, are found on the Pyrenees and the Alps. 

Minerals. Gold mines anciently existed in the 
S. of France, and some of the rivulets still roll down par¬ 
ticles of that metal. France can also boast of the silver 
mines at St. Marie-aux-Mines in Alsace, and elsewhere. 
The same as well as other districts contain mines of cop¬ 
per. The Duchy of Deux Fonts, one of the fraternized 
acquisitions of France on the west of the Rhine, is cele¬ 
brated for mines of quicksilver. The annual product of 
these mines may be estimated at 67,200 pounds of mercu¬ 
ry. Two-thirds of the lead of France are from Bretagne, 
particularly the mines of Poullaouen and Huelgoet. 

Iron, that most important and universal of metals, is 
found in abundance, particularly in some of the northern 
departments. In 1798 it was computed that there were 
2000 furnaces, forges, &c. for the working of iron and steel* 

The coal mines of France were at the same time esti¬ 
mated at 400, constantly wrought; and 200 more capable 
of being wrought. Nearly allied to coal is jet, an article 
formerly of great consumption, chiefly in Spain, where it 
was made into rosaries, crosses, buttons for black dresses, 
&c. 

Natural Curiosities. Among the natural curi¬ 
osities of France, the most worthy of notice is the plain of 
La Crau, which lies in Provence, not far from the mouth 
of the Rhone. This is the most singular stony desert that 
is to be found in France, or perhaps in Europe. The dia¬ 
meter is about five leagues, and the contents from 20 to 25 
square leagues, or about 150,000 English acres. 

Erench Isles. The isles around France are so 
small, and unimportant, that they would scarcely be de¬ 
serving of notice, were it not for events that have taken 
place during the late war. The isle of Corsica must how¬ 
ever be excepted, as it gave birth to Napoleon ionaparte, 
a military adventurer, and now emperor of France. 


92 


FRANCE. 


The isles called Hyeres, near Toulon, have at present 
a barren and naked appearance, and only present some 
melancholy pines. They however contain some botanic 
riches, and may claim the fame of being Homer’s isle of 
Calypso. 

On the western coast first occurs the isle of Oleron, 
about fourteen miles long, by two broad, celebrated for a 
code of maritime laws issued by Richard I. king of Eng¬ 
land. To the N. is the isle of Re, opposite Rochelle, 
noted for an expedition of the English in the seventeenth 
century. Bellisle has been repeatedly attacked by the 
English: it is about nine miles long and three broad, sur¬ 
rounded by steep rocks, which, with the fortifications, 
render the conquest difficult. The isle of Ushant, or 
Ouessant, is remarkable as the furthest headland of France, 
towards the west, being about twelve miles from the conti¬ 
nent, and about nine in circumference, with several ham¬ 
lets, and about 600 inhabitants. And St. Marcou, held by 
the British during the last war, in defiance of all the power 
of the great nation, although it is only seven miles from 
their shores. 


NETHERLANDS. 


THOSE provinces of the Netherlands which were for 
merly subject to the house of Austria, have been recently 
annexed to the French dominions ; and this fertile territory 
may probably continue to be united to France, as to acquire 
it was one reason why the French murdered their king 
and queen, and established a republic. 

Names. I he Netherlands in general were anci¬ 
ently known by the name of Belgic Gaul, and therefore the 
French, in their new-fangled vocabulary, call them re-united 
departments. 

Extent. The length of the Austrian Netherlands, 
computed from the eastern limit of Luxembourg to Os- 
tend on the ocean, may be about 180 British miles ; and 
about 120 in breadth, from the northern boundary of Aus¬ 
trian Brabant to the most southern limit of Hainaut. The 
extent is computed at 7,520 square miles, with a population 
of 1,900,000. 

Original Population. The original population 
was Celtic succeeded by the Belgae, and afterwards van¬ 
quished by the Franks. 

Historical Epochs. 1 . The events while the 
Romans held Gaul. 

2. Under the Merovingian race of French kings. 

3. The ancient earls of Flanders, and Hainaut, and other 
potentates who shared these territories. 

4. The dukes of Burgundy. During these two epochs 
the Netherlands became the great mart of commerce in 




94 


NETHERLANDS. 


the west of Europe, and were distinguished by opulence 
and the arts. 

5. The Austrian domination, accompanied with repeated 
unsuccessful struggles for freedom. The seven United 
Provinces having, however, established their liberty, the 
commerce, and prosperity of the southern regions passed 
quickly to their northern neighbours. 

6. Their conquest by the French and annexation to the 
territory of the republic. 

Religion, See. The religion of the Netherlands 
is the Roman Catholic ; and till the French revolution, the 
inhabitants were noted for their bigotry. The metropoli¬ 
tan see was the archbishopric of Mechlin, or Malines. The 
bishoprics were those of Bruges, Antwerp, Ghent, See. in 
number nine or ten. The government and laws had many 
features of freedom. The Joyense Entree was the magna 
charta of the Netherlands, a constitutional bond of national 
privileges, which the inhabitants foolishly exchanged for 
French fraternity. 

Population, See. The population being computed 
at 1,900,000, and the square extent at 7,520 miles, there 
will be 252 inhabitants to the square mile, while France 
yields only 174. Under the Austrian power, the revenue 
of the Netherlands scarcely defrayed the expences of go¬ 
vernment, and the various extortions of the French rulers 
cannot afford any sufficient data to compute an equitable 
and lasting revenue. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the Netherlands partake of those of their neighbours, 
the Dutch and French, but principally of the latter, which, 
together with the common use of the French language, 
paved the way for their subjugation. 

P. Schools. The education was neglected as in 
most Catholic countries. The universities, which in no 
country are of equal importance with the schools, were, 
however, numerous, considering the extent of the country. 
Exclusive of Tournay, (Dornick) which has been long sub¬ 
ject to the French, there were others at Douay, and St. 
Omer, much frequented by the English Catholics ; and 
one of still greater celebrity at Louvain, founded in 1425. 

Cities and i owns. The three chief cities in 
what were called the Austrian Netherlands, are Brussels, 
Ghent, and Antwerp. The capital city of Brussels still 


NETHERLANDS. 


95 


contains about 80,000 inhabitants, and is beautified by a 
noble square, one side of which is occupied with a vast 
guildhall; and by numerous churches and fountains. The 
imperial palace, the wonted residence of the governor of 
the Netherlands, displays considerable taste and magnifi 
cence. 

Ghent contains about 60,000 souls, and the circumfer¬ 
ence of the walls is computed at 15 miles, as it is built on a 
number of little islands formed by four rivers, and many 
canals, and includes gardens, and even fields. 

The inhabitants of Antwerp are computed at 50,000, the 
sad remains of great population and prosperity. The streets, 
houses, and churches, are worthy of the ancient fame of 
the city. The exchange is said to have afforded the pattern 
for that of Londofi. In 1568 the trade is supposed to have 
been at its greatest height; and the number of inhabitants 
was computed at 200,000. 

Edifices. In general it may be observed, that 
even at the present day, every traveller is impressed with 
surprise, not only at the number, but the great extent of 
the Flemish cities, towns, and even villages ; in which re¬ 
spect the Netherlands exceed every country in Europe, 
only excepting the United Provinces. The chief edifices 
are the cathedrals, churches and monasteries ; together 
with a few castles belonging to ancient families, or rich 
merchants. 

Inland Navigation. Idle would be the attempt 
even to enumerate the canals which intersect these provin¬ 
ces in all directions. Some of them date even from the 
tenth century, and the canal from Brussels to the Scheld 
is of the sixteenth. Other important canals extend from 
Ghent, Antwerp, Ostend, and other cities and towns, es¬ 
pecially in the w estern districts. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The manu¬ 
factures and commerce of the Netherlands, for a long pe¬ 
riod superior to any in the west of Europe, have suffered 
a radical decline, owfing partly to the other powers enter¬ 
ing ‘into competition ; and partly to the establishment of 
freedom in the United Provinces, whence Amsterdam 
arose upon the ruins of Antwerp. What little commerce 
remains is chiefly inland to Germany, the external employ¬ 
ing very few native vessels. The chief manufactures are 
of fine linen, and laces, at Mechlin, Brussels, Ghent, Ant- 


96 


NETHERLANDS. 


werp, Louvain, which still enrich the country around, and 
induce the farmers to cultivate flax, even on the poorest 
soils. 

Climate and Seasons, See. The climate of the 
Netherlands considerably resembles that of the south of 
England, and is more remarkable for moisture than for 
warmth ; yet the duchy of Luxembourg produces some 
wine. The soil is in general rich sandy loam, sometimes 
interspersed with fields of clay, but more often with large 
spaces of sand. Such has been, even in distant ages, the 
state of agriculture that the Netherlands were long esteem¬ 
ed the very garden of Europe, a praise which they still 
share with Lombardy and England. The repeated crops 
of excellent clover, the cole, the turnips, the clean crops 
of flax, barley, and oats, deservedly attract attention. 

Rivers. The Netherlands are watered by so many 
rivers and canals, that it will be sufficient to mention only 
a few of the chief streams. The chief river is the Scheld, 
which receives two other streams, the Lys, and the Scalpe, 
the latter near Mortagne, the former near Ghent. All 
these rivers arise in the county of Artois, from no consi¬ 
derable elevation ; and the whole course of the Scheld, or 
French Escaut, cannot be comparatively estimated at above 
120 miles. Most of the other rivers yield in importance to 
the canals, and it w'ould indeed be difficult in many instances 
to determine whether their course be the work of nature 
or art. 

Mountains, &c. Though there be little ridges of 
hills in the counties of Namur and Luxembourg, the tra¬ 
veller must proceed to the distant banks of the Rhine before 
he meets with any elevation that can deserve the name even 
of a small mountain. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
vegetable productions of the Catholic Netherlands differ in 
no respect from those of Holland, and almost all the plants 
that are natives of this country may be met with in the sandy 
and marshy districts of the south-east coast of England. 

The breed of horses and cattle is esteemed for size and 
strength. 

Minerals. So plain a country cannot be supposed 
to supply many minerals : yet coal, perhaps the most pre¬ 
cious of them all, is found in several districts, and the 


NETHERLANDS. 


97 


ingenuity of the French has been exerted in an improve¬ 
ment of the operations. In the county of Namur are also 
found lead and copper; and Hainaut affords iron and slate. 
From its iron works Luxembourg derives its chief wealth ; 
and the forest of Ardennes is still renowned for the metal 
of war. Marble and alabaster are also found in the eastern 
districts. 


I 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


Extent. By the final partition of Poland, European 
Russia now extends from the river Dniester to the Ura- 
lian mountains, that grand chain which naturally divides 
Europe from Asia; a length of about 1600 miles, and in 
breadth above 1000 English miles, being from 47° to 
72° north latitude, and 23° to 65° east longitude. The 
extent is computed at about 1,200,000 square miles, with 
17 inhabitants to each. 

Even the European part of the Russian empire embraces 
many ancient kingdoms and states ; but the chief name, 
that of Russia, shall only be considered. 

Original Population. The grand population 
of the European part of the Russian empire is well known 
to be Slavonic. The Slavons, form an extensive original 
race of mankind, radically distinct from the Goths on the 
one hand, who, as possessing the countries more to the 
west, must have preceded the Slavons in their passage from 
Asia into Europe ; and equally distinguishable in language, 
person, and manners, from the Tatars, and other nations 
on the east. They are the Sarmatae of the ancients, and 
were ever remarkable for personal elegance and strength. 

Civil Divisions. The principal sub-divisions of 
European Russia are into military governments; which, 
though they are often changing, and are seldom mentioned 
by any except native geographers, it has not been thought 
right entirely to omit. 




RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


£9 


I o the North is the extensive government of Archangel, 
stretching from the borders of Sweden to the confines of 
Asia. South of this, along the Asiatic frontier are the 
governments of Vologda, Perm, Viatka Kazan, Simbirsk, 
Saratov, and the territory of the Don-Kozaks, each succeed¬ 
ing the other in a regular progress to the sea of Azof. The 
government of Ecaterinoslav, with the kingdom of Taurida, 
is the southernmost province, and contains Little Tatary, 
with the recent conquests from the Turks. On the west 
extend the acquisitions by the division of Poland. The 
governments of Riga, Revel, Petersburg, and Viborg, 
are situated along the Gulfs of Riga and Finland ; and 
the government of Olonetz on the Swedish frontier com¬ 
pletes the circuit. The midland provinces are the follow¬ 
ing ; Novgorod, Tver, Kostroma, and Yaroslavl, for the 
most part to the North and east of the Volga; Polotsk, 
Pskov, Smolensk, Mosqua, Vladimir, Nizney-Novgorod, 
Moghilev, Calouga, Toula, Riazan, Tambov, Penza, Sim¬ 
birsk, Orel, Sieverskov, Tchernigov, Koursk, Kiev, (Khar¬ 
kov, Voronetz, principally to the west of the Volga. 

Historical Epochs. The following appear to 
be the chief historical epochs of this mighty empire : 

1. The foundation of the kingdom by Ruric, a Scandi¬ 
navian chief, A. D. 862. His descendants held the sceptre 
above 700 years. 

2. The naval expeditions of the Russians against Con¬ 
stantinople, in the tenth century. 

3. In the same century the baptism of Olga the queen, 
and the subsequent conversion of the Russians to Chris¬ 
tianity. 

4. The invasion of the Tatars under Batu Khan in 1236, 
and the subsequent vassalage of Russia. 

5. The abolition of the power of the Tatars by Ivan III. 
who died in 1505. 

6. The reign of Ivan IV. surnamed Rasilow'itz, known 
to western historians by the style of the tyrant John 
Basilides. 

7. The death of the Czar Feodor in 1508, with whom 
expired the long progeny of Ruric. Several impostors 
afterwards appeared, under the name of Demetrius, the 
murdered brother of this sovereign. 

8. The accession of the dynasty of Romanow, 1613, in 
the person of Michael Feodorowitz, sprung in the female 


iOQ 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


line from Ivan IV. He was followed by his son Alexia, 
father of Peter the Great. 

9. The reign of Peter I. has been justly considered as a 
most important epoch in Russian history; but on reading 
the annals of the preceding reigns from that of Ivan IV. it 
will be perceived that a part of our admiration for Peter 
arises from our inattention to his predecessors, and that 
the light which he diffused was far from being so sudden 
and grand as is commonly imagined. 

10. The late reign of Catharine II. deserves to be com¬ 
memorated among the most brilliant epochs in the Russian 
annals; nor must her personal crimes exclude her from 
the list of great and able sovereigns. 

Antiquities. Of ancient monuments Russia can¬ 
not be supposed to afford great variety. Sometimes the 
tombs of their pagan ancestors are discovered, containing 
weapons and ornaments. The catacombs at Kiow were 
perhaps formed in the Pagan period, though they be now 
replete with marks of Christianity. They are labyrinths 
of considerable extent, dug through a mass of hardened 
clay, but they do not seem to contain the bodies of the 
monarchs. 

Religion. The religion of Russia is that of the 
Greek church, of which, since the fall of the Byzantine 
empire, this state may be considered as the chief source 
and power. 

Government. The government of Russia ap¬ 
pears to have been always despotic, there being no legisla¬ 
tive power distinct from that of the sovereign. What is 
called the senate is only the supreme court of judicature. 
The whole frame of the government may be pronounced 
to be military ; and nobility itself is only virtually estimated 
by rank in the army. The first Russian code dates from 
the reign of Ivan IV. and the late empress had the merit 
of drawing up a new code with her own hands. 

Population. The population of Russia is so dif¬ 
fuse, and spread over so wide an extent of territory, that very 
opposite opinions have been entertained concerning it 
The following account, according to Mr. Tooke, presents 
the whole population of the empire in 1799 : 

By the revision of 1783 there were in the') 
governments, computing the female sex as >25,677,000 
equal to the male, of registered persons, J 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


101 


220,000 


1,500,000 


The amount of the Kozaks of the Don and } 
the Euxine, h 

roi the numbered tribes and classes, at the } 
time of the fourth revision, c 

Consequently the Russian empire, in the') 

y ear 1783,might have inhabitants amounting 127,397,000 
altogether to l 

Natural increase since 1783, 3,000,000 

The new acquisitions since the year 1783,} ’ _ ’ 

contain, according to a legitimated statement^ 55,000 

Consequently we may admit, by the most') 
moderate estimate, the population of the (.36,755,000 
Russian empire at present to be J 

Of this population Mr. Tooke assigns only about three 
millions and a half to Siberia, or Asiatic Russia, so that 
we might, perhaps, allow even 33,000,000 for the popula¬ 
tion of European Russia. 

Army. Mr. i ooke estimates the whole amount 
ot the Russian troops at 600,000 : of which 500,000 may 
be esteemed effective. 

Navy. The Russian navy consists of several de¬ 
tached fleets. The chief fleet is that of the Baltic, which 
consists of about thirty-six ships of the line. That in the 
Euxine, or Black sea, at the harbours of Sevastopol and 
Kherson was computed at twelve ships of the line, but not 
of a high rate, as the Euxine affords no great depth of 
water : but there are many frigates, galliesrchebecks, and 
gun-boats. The fleet of gallies in the Baltic, in 1789, was 
estimated at 110. 

Revenues. The revenues of Russia are supposed 
to amount to about 50,000,000 of rubles; which, valuing 
the ruble at four shillings, will be equal to 10,000,000/". 
sterling. The national debt is supposed to amount to little 
or nothing. 

Political Importance, See. With all these ad¬ 
vantages it is no wonder that the political importance and 
relations of Russia are so preponderant in Europe and 
Asia. In Europe her recent acquisitions have contri¬ 
buted to render her more and more formidable. Poland 
has been devoured ; Denmark and Sweden may be con¬ 
sidered as subject-allies ; and if the whole force of Russia 
were bent against either Austria or Prussia, it is hardly to 
be conceived that the shock could be withstood ; but it 

12 


102 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


would be more usefully employed against the ambitious 
strides of France. Her friendship is of peculiar import¬ 
ance to the British empire, in peace, as well as war. 

Manners and Customs. As the Russian empire 
comprises so many distinct races of men, the manners ot 
course must be very various. 

The Slavonic Russians, who constitute the chief mass 
and soul of this empire, are generally middle sized and 
vigorous : the tallness and grace of the Polish Slavons seem 
to arise from superior climate and soil. The general phy¬ 
siognomy consists of a small mouth, thin lips, white teeth, 
small eyes, a low forehead, the nose commonly small, and 
turned upwards, beard very bushy, hair generally reddish. 
The expression of the countenance is gravity, with good 
nature, or sagacity ; the gait and gestures lively and im¬ 
passioned. The Russian is extremely patient of hunger 
and thirst; and his cure for all diseases is the warm bath, 
or rather vapour bath, in which the heat is above 100° of 
Farenheit’s thermometer. When a marriage is pro¬ 
posed, the lover, accompanied by a friend, goes to the 
house of the bride, and says to her mother, “ shew us 
your merchandize, we have got money,” an expression 
which is thought to refer to the ancient custom of buying 
a wife. The Russians shew great attention to their nurses, 
and are so hospitable that they offer to every stranger the 
Khleh da -s*';/, or bread and salt, the symbol of food, lodging, 
and protection. In several instances the Russians form a 
curious junction of European and Asiatic manners ; many 
of their ceremonies partake of Asiatic splendour ; the great 
are fond of dwarfs ; and some opulent ladies maintain fe¬ 
male tellers of tales, whose occupation is to lull their mis¬ 
tresses asleep, by stories resembling those of the Arabian 
Nights. 

Language. The Russian language is extremely 
difficult to pronounce, and not less difficult to acquire, as 
it abounds with extraordinary sounds, and anomalies of 
every kind. The characters amount to no less than thirty- 
six ; and the common sounds are sometimes expressed in 
the Greek characters, sometimes in characters quite unlike 
those of any other language. Among other singularities 
there is one letter to express the *c//, and another the &sch> 
the latter a sound hardly pronounceable by any human 
mouth. 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


103 


Public Schools. Education is little known or 
diffused in Russia, though the court have instituted acade¬ 
mies for the instruction of officers and artists. 

The university of Petersburg, founded by the late em¬ 
press Catharine II. is a noble instance of munificence, and 
it is hoped will escape the fate of the colleges, founded at 
Moscow, by Peter the Great, which do not seem to have 
met with the deserved success. 

Cities and Towns. In considering the chief 
cities and towns of Russia, Moscow, the ancient capital, 
attracts the first attention. This city dates from the year 
1300, and prior to the pestilence of 1771, the houses in 
Moscow were computed at 12,538, and the population at 
not less than 200,000. Moscow is built in the Asiatic man¬ 
ner, in which cities cover a vast space of ground. Peters¬ 
burg, the imperial residence, is said to contain 170,000 
inhabitants ; and is the well known, but surprising erection 
of the last century. It stands in a marshy situation on the 
river Neva, the houses being chiefly of wood. The stone 
buildings are few ; and Petersburg is more distinguished 
by its fame, than by its appearance or opulence. The 
noblest public works are the quays built of perpetual granite. 

Astracan is supposed to stand next to Petersburg!! in po¬ 
pulation. This city, near the mouth of the vast river Vol¬ 
ga, was the capital of the Tatar kingdom of Capshak ; but 
the churches are chiefly of brick, and the houses of wood. 
The population is computed at 70,000. Cronstadt, and Eol- 
lonna, are supposed each to contain about 60,000 inhabitants. 
Cherson, and Caffa, are said each to contain 20,000; while 
50,000 are ascribed to Tula, and 27,000 to Riga, a city of 
considerable trade and consequence. 

Inland Navigation. The inland navigation of 
Russia deserves more attention. Among other laudable im¬ 
provements, Peter the Great formed the design of esta¬ 
blishing an intercourse by water between Petersburgh and 
Persia, by the Caspian sea, the Volga, the Mesta, and the 
lake of Novgorod, See. but this scheme failed by the ignor¬ 
ance of the engineers. During the long reign of the late 
empress many canals were accomplished, or at least re¬ 
ceived such improvements that the chief honour must be 
ascribed to her administration. The celebrated canal of 
Vishnei Voleshok was in some shape completed by Peter, 
so as to form a communication between Astracan and Pe- 


104 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


tersburg. The navigation is performed according to the 
season of the year, in from a fortnight to a month, and it is 
supposed that near 4000 vessels pass annually. 

The canal of Ladoga, extends from the river Volk to the 
Neva, a space of 674 miles, and communicates with the 
former canal. By these two important canals constant in¬ 
tercourse is maintained between the northern and southern 
extremities of the empire. Another canal leads from Mos¬ 
cow to the river Don, forming a communication with the 
Euxine ; and the canal of Cronstradt forms a fourth. 

Manufactures and Commerce. By these means 
the inland trade of Russia has attained considerable prospe¬ 
rity : and the value of her exports and imports have been 
long upon the increase. Several manufactures are conducted 
with considerable spirit. That of isinglass, and kaviar are in 
a flourishing state. The manufactories of oil and soap are 
also considerable ; and Petersburg exports great quantities 
of candles, besides tallow, which abounds in an empire so 
well replenished with pasturage. Salt-petre is an imperial 
traffic, and some sugar is refined at Petersburg. There 
are several manufactures of paper and tobacco, linen, cot¬ 
ton, and silk : leather has long been a staple commodity. 

Russia produces vast quantities of wax. Iron founderies 
abound ; and in the northern government of Olonetz is a 
grand foundery of cannon. 

Russia is supposed to export by the Baltic grain annually 
to the value of 170,000/. and hemp and flax, raw, and ma¬ 
nufactured to the amount of a million and a half sterling. 

The Commerce of the Caspian sea is computed at 
1,000,000 of rubles, or 200,000/. That of the Euxine is 
not above one-third of this value. That with China about 
2,000,000 of rubles. Russia exchanges her precious Si¬ 
berian furs for tea, silk, and porcelain ; and her internal 
commerce is very considerable. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of Russia 
in Europe, as may be expected in such a diversity of lati¬ 
tudes, presents almost every variety from that of Lapland, 
to that of Italy : for the newly acquired province of Taurida 
may be compared with Italy in climate and soil. 

Roil and Agriculture. The soil is of course 
also extremely diverse. The most fertile is that between 
the Don and the Volga, from Voronetz to Simbirsk, con¬ 
sisting of a black mould, strongly impregnated with salt- 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


105 


pctie ; that is, a soil formed from successive layers of vege¬ 
table lemains. In Livonia and Esthonia the medial returns 
of harvest are eight or ten fold ; and the latter is generally 
the produce of the rich plains near the Don, where the 
fiekis are never manured, but on the contrary are apt to 
swell the corn into too much luxuriance. Pasturage is so 
abundant that the meadows are little regarded, and°the ar¬ 
tificial production of grasses is scarcely known. 

In general however agriculture is treated with great 
negligence, yet the harvests are abundant. In the north 
rye is mest generally cultivated ; but in the middle and 
the southern regions wheat; in the government of Eka- 
tarinoslav the Arnautan wheat is beautiful, the flour yel¬ 
lowish, the return commonly fifteen fold ; nor is Turkish 
wheat or maize, unknown in T aurida. Barley is a gene¬ 
ral produce, and is converted into meal, as well as oats, 
of which a kind of porridge is composed. Millet is also 
widely diffused. Rice succeeds well in the vicinity of Kis- 
lear. Hemp and flax form great objects of agriculture. 
Tobacco also has been produced since the year 1763, chiefly 
from Turkish and Persian seed. 

Rivers. In enumerating the chief rivers of Euro¬ 
pean Russia the first attention is due to the majestic Volga, 
which forms through a long space, the boundary between 
Asia and Europe. Its comparative course may be comput¬ 
ed at about 1700 miles. 1 his noble river having no cata¬ 
racts, and few shoals, is navigable even to Twer. 

Next to the Volga, on the west, is the Don, or Tanais, 
which rises from a lake in the government of Tulan, 
and falls into the sea of Azof, after a course oLabout 800 
miles. 

The Neiper, or ancient Borysthenes, rises in the govern¬ 
ment of Smolensk, about 150 miles to the south of the 
source of the Volga, and about 100 to the S. E. of that of 
the Duna, or Duina, which flows into the Baltic, by Riga; 
and after a course of about 1000 miles through rich and fer¬ 
tile provinces, falls into the Euxine. 

The Niester, or ancient Tyras, now forms the boundary 
between European Turkey and Russia, deriving its source 
from the north side of the Carpathian mountains, and fall¬ 
ing into the Euxine at Akerman, after a course of about 
600 miles. 


106 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 


The Dwina falls into the gulph of Archangel, after a 
considerable course of about 500 miles. The Onega closes 
the list of the chief rivers that flow into the Arctic ocean; 
for those of Olonetz, and of Russian Lapland, are of little 
consequence. 

Lakes. The chief lakes of European Russia are 
situated in the N. W. division of the empire. There is a 
considerable lake in Russian Lapland, that of Imandra ; to 
the south of which is the large lake of Onega, which is about 
50 miles in length, by a medial breadth of about 30. To 
the west is the Ladoga, about 130 miles in length, by 70 in 
breadth, being one of the largest lakes in Europe. As it has 
many shoals, and is liable to sudden and violent tempests, 
Peter the Great opened a canal along its shores, from the 
Volk to the Neva. 

On the S. W. we find the lake of Peypus, about 60 miles 
in length by 30 in breadth: and to the east is the lake 
Ilmen, on which stands the ancient city of Novgorod. The 
Beilo, or White lake, is so called from its bottom of white 
clay. 

Mountains. European Russia is rather a plain 
country, though some parts of it be greatly elevated, such 
as that which sends forth the three rivers of Duna, Volga, 
and Nieper. This region which is passed in travelling from 
Petersburg to Moscow, is by some called the mountains of 
Valday ; but it seems to be rather a high table land, sur¬ 
mounted with large sand hills, and interspersed with masses 
of red and grey granite. 

The most important chains of mountains in European 
Russia are those of Olonetz in the furthest N. and those of 
Ural which separate Europe from Asia. The chain of 
Olonetz runs in a direction almost due N. for the space of 
15° or about 900 G. miles. The most arctic part retains 
perpetual snow from the altitude of the climate. 

The immense Uralian chain extends from about the 
50th to near the 67th degree of N. latitude, or about 1000 
G. miles in length, and has by the Russians been called 
Semenoi Poias , or the girdle of the world, an extravagant 
appellation, when we consider that the chain of the Andes 
extends near 5000 miles. Pauda, one of the highest moun¬ 
tains of the Uralian chain, is reported by Gmelin to be about 
4512 feet above the level of the sea, an inconsiderable height 
l^hen compared with Mont Blanc or Mont Rosa. 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE. lor 

Vegetable ANE> Animal Productions. The 

vegetable kingdom of Russia has been but imperfectly ex- 
plored. '1 he Russian provinces N. of the Baltic, contain 
he same plants as those of Swedish and Norwegian Lap- 
land, which will be hereafter described. Such an extent 
between the 50th and 60th deg. lat. abound principally in 
the common vegetables of the north of France and Ger- 

man ^; ^ he trees of most use, and in greatest abundance 
aie, the fir ; the Scotch pine; the yew-leaved fir; and 
the larch ; all of which mingled together, form the vast 
impenetrable forests, whence the rest of Europe is prin¬ 
cipally supplied with masts, deals, pitch, and tar. The 
other forest trees are, the elm, the lime, of the inner bark 
o which the Russian mats are made, and from whose 
blossoms the immense swarms of wild bees collect the 
chief part of their honey ; the birch, the alder, the aspen, 
the greater maple, and sycamore ; of the shrubs and hum¬ 
bler plants, those of most importance are the cloud-berry 
the cran-berry, the bear-berry, the stone bramble ; the fruit 
of all which, for want of better, is highly esteemed, and is 
either eaten fresh, or is preserved in snow during the 
winter. The Taurida abounds in the oak, both the’com¬ 
mon kind and the species with prickly cups ; the black 
and the white poplars of unusual size, skirt along the 
mai gins of the sti earns; the ash, the horn beam, the nettle 
tree, occupy the upland pastures ; and the elegant beech 
crowns the summits of the lime-stone ridges. Of the fruit¬ 
bearing shrubs and trees, besides the gooseberry, the red, 
the white, and black currant, which are dispersed in abun¬ 
dance through the woods, there arc the almond and peach ; 
the apricot and crab-cherry ; the medlar ; the walnut; the 
Tatarian, the black, and the white mulberry ; the olive • 
the Ohio turpentine tree ; the hazle nut; the fig ; the vine 
and the pomegranate. 

The more peculiar animals of Russia are the white bear 
of Novaya Zemlia, and the souslik of the S. In the more, 
northern parts are found the wolf, the lynx, the elk ; nor 
is the camel unknown in the lower latitudes. The animals 
in the centre seem common to the rest of Europe. Among 
the more useful animals the horse has met with deserved 
attention, and the breed in many parts of the empire is 
large, strong, and beautiful. 


108 


RUSSIA IN EUROPE: 


Jn Taurida it is said that common Tatars may possess 
about 1000 sheep, while an opulent flock is computed at 
50,000; those of the whole peninsula were supposed to 
amount to 7,000,000 : nor is the rein-deer unknown in the 
furthest N. so that the empire may be said to extend from 
the latitude of the rein-deer to that of the camel. 

Mineralogy. The chief mines belonging to 

Russia are in the Asiatic part of the empire, but a few are 
situated in the European, in the mountains of Olonetz ; 
and there was formerly a gold mine in that region near the 
river Vyg. 


RUSSIAN ISLES. 


The small isle of Cronstadt, in the gulph of Finland, was 
formerly called Retusavi, and is only remarkable for an ex¬ 
cellent haven, strongly fortified, the chief station of the 
Russian fleet. In the Baltic, Russia also possesses the 
islands of Oesel and Dago. 

Novaya Zemlia, or the New Land, uninhabited, is said 
to consist of five isles, but the channels between them are 
always filled with ice. Seals, walruses, arctic foxes, white 
bears, and a few rein-deer, constitute the zoology of this 
desert. 

The remote and dreary islands of Spitzbergen having 
been taken possession of by the Russians, they may be 
here briefly described. The main land of Spitzbergen ex¬ 
tends about 300 miles from the south cape, lat. 76° 30' to 
Verlegan Hook, lat. 80° 7'. It is supposed to have been first 
discovered by the Dutch navigator Barentz in 1596. About 
the first of November the sun sets, and appears no more 
till the beginning of February ; and after the beginning it 
never sets till August. The only shrubby plant that is seen 
is the Lapland willow, which rises to the height of two 
inches. Here are found polar bears, foxes, rein-deer, with 
walruses and seals. 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


THE dominions subject to the house of Austria embrace 
many ancient kingdoms and states, which, for the sake of 
perspicuity, are here brought under one point of view. The 
hereditary domains alone of this powerful house entitle it 
to rank among the chief European powers, being of wide 
extent, and great importance, and boasting a population 
of not less than 20,000,000. 

In describing a sovereignty, thus composed of many 
ancient states, it may seem proper to pay the first and chief 
attention to that part which was the earliest important in 
heritance of the ruling family. On this plan the provinces 
that will here require particular observation are the arch¬ 
duchy of Austria; the kingdoms of Hungary, and Bo¬ 
hemia ; the grand-duchy of Transylvania; the dominion 
towards the Adriatic, with the acquisitions of Venice and 
Dalmatia ; and lastly that part of Poland which has failen 
under the Austrian sceptre. 

Names. The arch-duchy of Austria may be con¬ 
sidered as belonging, in part to ancient Pannonia, the V in- 
dobona of the Romans being the modern Vienna. But that 
half of Austria, which lies north of the Danube, was occu¬ 
pied by the ancient Quadi. The German name and divi¬ 
sion of Osterich, or the eastern kingdom, arose after Char¬ 
lemagne had established the western empire, beim a rem¬ 
nant of the sovereignty of what was called Eastern France: 
and after the failure of the Francic line became a marquisate 

K 




AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


110 

feudatory to the dukes of Bavaria, till the emperor Frederic 
Rarbarosa, in 1156, constituted it a duchy held immediately 
of the empire. Hungary, a part of which belonged to 
ancient Dacia, derives its modern appellation from the 
Ugurs, a nation of Turkomanic or Tataiic oiigin..their 
language approaches to the Finnic dialect. Bohemia, or 
the habitation of the Boii, was a central province of Bar¬ 
baric Germany, afterwards seized by a Slavonic tribe, 
whose chiefs were originally styled dukes of Bohemia. 
Transylvania, and the Buckovina are parts of the province 
of Dacia, founded by Trajan. Venice, as is well known, 
derives its appellation from the ancient Veneti of the op¬ 
posite shore. 

Extent. From the frontiers of Swisserland, to 
the utmost limits of Transylvania, the length of the Aus¬ 
trian dominions may be about 760 British miles; the 
breadth about 520. The acquisition of Venetian Dalmatia 
may probably soon be followed by the junction of those 
Turkish provinces, which divide that province from the 
Austrian domain. The square contents may be about 
184,000 miles. Boetticher estimates the inhabitants at 
108 to a square mile. 

The principal sub-divisions of the Austrian dominions 
are, 

1. The Circle of Austria. 2. The kingdom of Bohemia. 
3. Moravia. 4. Part of Silesia. 5. Part of Bavaria. 6. 
Part of Swabia. 7. Hungary. 8. Transylvania. 9. Dal¬ 
matia. 10. Part ©f Poland. 11. The Venetian territo¬ 
ries E. of the Adige, and the city of Venice. 

Towards the E. the Austrian dominions border on those 
of Russia and Turkey, and to the N. on those of Prussia, 
Upper Saxony, Bavaria, and Swabia. On the utmost W. 
are Swisserland and the Italian states. 

Original Population. The original population 
of these extensive regions is various, but chiefly Gothic 
and Slavonic. The Venetians, and adjacent Italians, may 
be considered as genuine descendants of the Cisalpine 
Gauls, and of the Roman colonies established among them. 
In ancient descent no genealogy can vie with that of several 
Venetian families, which can be traced by history and re¬ 
cord to the eighth century. 

Historical P'pochs. 1 . The house of Austria 
is well known to have sprung from the humble counts of 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


111 


Hapsburg. On a lofty eminence, crowned with beech, in 
the Canton of Berne, stands an ancient tower, the first 
seat of the house of Austria. In 1273, Rodolph of Haps¬ 
burg was called to the imperial throne, being at this time 
lord of the greater part of Swisserland ; by the extinction of 
the powerful houses of Zaeringen, and Kyburg. 

. 2. Another emperor of the house of Austria appeared 
in Albert, A. D. 1298 ; from whom the Swiss made their 
signal revolt in 1307. His son Frederic was obliged to 
yield the empire to Louis of Bavaria. 

3. Albert II. duke of Austria, A. D. 1438, succeeded to 
three crowns, on the death of his father-in-law the emperor 
Sigismond; those of Hungary and Bohemia by inheritance, 
and that of the empire by unanimous election. 

4. Maximilian having married the heiress of Burgundy, 
the Netherlands became subject to the house of Austria in 
1477. 

5. The noted bigotry of the house of Austria w r as not 
confined to the Spanish branch ; for though Maximilian 
II. about 1570, had granted liberty of conscience even to 
the Protestants of Austria, yet those of Bohemia, and other 
parts, were afterwards so much oppressed, that the Pro¬ 
testant princes of Germany called in Gustaff Adolf, the 
celebrated Swedish monarch, to their assistance, and the 
war continued till 1648, when the famous treaty of West¬ 
phalia was signed, which has served as a basis for other 
diplomatic transactions. 

6. The war with France was often re-kindled during the 
long reign of Leopold I. 1658, to 1705 ; and in 1683 the 
Turks w r ere so successful as to lay siege to Vienna. 

7. Flis son Joseph I. joined the allies against France, 
and shared in their success. He married the daughter of 
John Frederic duke of Hanover. 

8. By the death of the emperor Charles VI. on the 20th 
October, 1740, without male issue, the house of Austria 
became extinct. The elector of Bavaria seized the king¬ 
dom of Bohemia, and was elected emperor in 1742, but 
died in 1745. 

9. Francis of Lorrain, son of Leopold duke of Lorrain, 
having married Maria Theresa, daughter of the emperor 
Charles VI. succeeded to the Austrian dominions, which 
continued to be held by his descendants. 


112 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


10. The reign of the emperor Joseph II. a beneficent 
but impolitic prince. 

11. I'he obdurate and sanguinary contest with France, 
the events of which have broken the connection between 
Great Britain and the empire, and destroyed the ancient 
balance of Europe. 

Having thus briefly marked the chief epochs of the Aus¬ 
trian power, the events of the subject kingdoms and states 
being of less importance, must be omitted. 

Of the provinces towards the Adriatic the history is little 
memorable, except that of Venice, a recent acquisition. 
1 his ancient and remarkable city was founded in the fifth 
century by the V eneti of the opposite shore, who fled from 
the incursions of the barbarians. At first each isle was 
governed by a tribune, till the year 697, when the first doge 
tvas elected. In the ninth and tenth centuries the govern¬ 
ment of the doges became nearly hereditary ; but in the 
eleventh the election again became open. Towards the 
close of the twelfth century the democratic form was suc¬ 
ceeded by an election, and administration severely aris¬ 
tocratic, and well known by its singularity and stability. 
The Venetians having gradually extended their power 
along the Adriatic, in the year 1204, became masters of 
several Grecian provinces and islands; and after their 
contests with the Pisans, and Genoese, became the first 
commercial and maritime power in Europe, till the end of 
the fifteenth century, when the discovery of the Cape of 
Good Hope transferred the oriental traffic to the Portu¬ 
guese. The authority of Venice declined with its com¬ 
merce; and the republic, at length fell by trusting to 
French faith, which was never pledged but to deceive. 

Antiquities. Vindobona, (Vienna) and the adja¬ 
cent parts of Noricum and Pannonia, occasionally display 
Roman remains ; but the ruins of the celebrated bridge of 
Trajan, over the Danube, belong to Turkey in Europe ; it 
is supposed to have consisted of twenty arches, or rather 
vast piers of stone, originally supporting a wooden fabric 
of the length of more than 3,300 English feet. In Hun¬ 
gary, and other parts of the ancient province of Dacia, ap¬ 
pear many relics of Roman power, as military roads, ruins, 
See. Several castles, churches, and monasteries still re-, 
maining, attest the magnificence of the founders, The 


CO _c 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


113 


cathedral church of St. Stephen, in Vienna, is a Gothic 
labric of singular pomp, and minute decoration. 

Religion. The preponderant religion of the Aus¬ 
trian dominions is the Roman Catholic, but attended with 
a considerable degree of toleration. Protestants of various 
sects are found in Bohemia, Moravia, Vienna, Transylvania, 
and Hungary. Vienna did not become a metropolitan see 
till the year 17 22 : the archbishop is a prince of the holy 
Roman empire. 

Government. The form of government is an he¬ 
reditary monarchy, approaching to absolute power. For 
though Hungary retain its ancient states, or rather an aris- 
tocratical senate, yet they cannot withstand the will of the 
sovereign. Even Austria has its states, consisting of four 
orders, clergy, peers, knights, burgesses; the assembly fol¬ 
lower Austria being held at Vienna, and that of the upper 
at Linz. But those local constitutions can little avail 
against the will of a powerful monarch, supported by a 
numerous army. 

The laws vary according to the different provinces, al¬ 
most every state having its peculiar code. In general the 
laws may be regarded as mild and salutary ; and the Aus¬ 
trians in particular are a well regulated and contented 
people, while the Hungarians are often dissatisfied, and re¬ 
tain much of their ancient animosity against the Germans. 

Population. The general population of the Aus¬ 
trian dominions is computed at about 22,000,000; that of 
Hungary, Transylvania, and the Buckovina, being esti¬ 
mated at 7,880,000. 

Of the other chief provinces, Bohemia is supposed to 
hold 2,806,000 ; and Moravia 1,256,000. The whole acqui¬ 
sitions in Poland contain 2,797,000 ; the Italian dominions 
probably two millions; while the archduchy of Austria is 
computed at 1,820,000. 

Army. The army is computed by Boetticher at 
365,455 men, in 136 regiments, of which 46 are Germans, 
and only eleven Hungarian. 

Revenue. The revenue is computed at more than 
10,000,000/. sterling ; to which Austria contributes about 
,000,000/. and Hungary a little more than a million and a 
alf. This revenue used to exceed the expences. 

Political Importance and Relations. Set¬ 
ting aside the consideration of his influence, as emperor 

K 2 


114 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


over the German states, the monarch may be regarded as 
an equal rival of France, and only inferior to the prepon¬ 
derance of Russia; and this power has occasioned a deter¬ 
mined rivalry between him and France. There are also 
causes of confirmed jealousy between Austria and Prussia; 
and it is doubtful if even an invasion from Russia would 
compel them to unite in a defensive alliance. Amidst so 
many enmities, and the necessary jealousy of Russian 
power, it would be difficult to point out any state on the 
continent with which Austria could enter into a strict and 
lasting alliance. The most natural and constant may be 
that with England, whose maritime power might inflict 
deep wounds upon their common enemy. By cultivating 
a steady friendship with Great Britain the emperor may 
more easily extend his commerce and shipping in the 
Adriatic and Mediterranean which would be a considerable 
step to becoming a maritime power, long the object of 
his ambition; and in case of a partition of European Turkey, 
which may not be very distant, with her aid he may possess 
himself of the Morea, and the isle of Candy, both of which 
were formerly under the dominion of Venice. This ac¬ 
quisition would not only operate as a check on the en¬ 
croachments of Russia, in the Black Sea, but frustrate the 
designs of France on Egypt and the Levant. 

Manners and Customs. Various are the mam 
ners and customs of the numerous kingdoms and provinces 
subject to the house of Austria. In Austria proper the 
people are much at their ease ; and the farmers, and even 
p asantry, little inferior to those of England. Travellers 
have remarked the abundance of provisions at Vienna, and 
the consequent daily luxury of food, accompanied with 
great variety of wines. The Austrian manners are cold, 
but civil ; the women elegant, but devoid of mental accom¬ 
plishments. The youth of rank are commonly ignorant, 
and of course haughty. An Austrian nobleman or gentle¬ 
man is never seen to read, and hence polite literature is 
almost unknown and uncultivated. In consequence of this 
ignorance the language remains unpolished ; and the Aus¬ 
trian speech is one of the meanest dialects of the German, 
so that polite people are constrained to use French. The 
lower orders are, however, little addicted to crimes or 
vices, and punishments are rare; robberies are seldom com¬ 
mitted, and murder little known. When capital punish- 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


115 


ment becomes unavoidable, it is administered with threat 
solemnity) and accompanied with public praverS) an exam - 
pie worthy of universal imitation. 

The Hungarians remain to be a spirited people, and affect 
to despise their masters. Their dress is well known to be 
peculiar, and is copied by the troops called hussars. This 
dress, consisting of a tight vest, mantle, and furred cap, 
is graceful; and the whiskers add a military ferocity to the 
appearance. 

Language. 1 he languages spoken in these domi¬ 
nions are various ; the German by the ruling nation, the 
Slavonic by the Foies, part of the Hungarians, the Dalma¬ 
tians, the Lohemians, and the IVioravians, and lastly the 
Finnic by the Hungarians in part. The Italian of course 
prevails in the states ol Italy that are subject to Austria : 
and the Tyrolese, Sec. use a mixture of Italian and German. 

Public Schools. The empress Theresa institut¬ 
ed schools for the education of children, but none for the 
education of teachers. Hence the children are taught me¬ 
taphysics before they know Gatin ; and a blind veneration for 
the monks forms one of the first exertions of nascent reason. 

I he universities, like those in other catholic countries, 
little promote the progress of solid knowledge. The sci¬ 
ences taught with the greatest care are precisely those 
which are of the smallest utility. The university of \ ienna 
has, since the year 1752, been somewhat improved. It 
was founded in 1237, and that of Prague in 1347; that of 
Inspruck only dates from 1677, and Gratz from 1585. 
Hungary chiefly boasts of Bucki, though the Jesuits insti¬ 
tuted academies at Raab, and Caschau. That of Buda by 
the Germans called Gffen possesses an income of about 
20,000/. sterling, only 4000 of which are applied to pay the 
salaries of the professors. There is a Calvinist college or 
university at Debretzen : and the bishop of Erlau has re¬ 
cently established a splendid university at that city. 

Cities and Towns. Vienna, the chief city of the 
Austrian dominions, lies on the S. or rather W. side of the 
Danube, in a fertile plain watered by a branch of that river. 
The Danube is here very wide, and contains several woody 
isles : it is founded on the site of the ancient r indobona ; 
but was of little note till the twelfth century, when it be¬ 
came the residence of the dukes of Austria, and was for¬ 
tified in the manner of that age. The manufactures are 


116 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


little remarkable, though some inland commerce be trans¬ 
acted on the noble stream of the Danube. The number 
of inhabitants is computed at 254,000. The suburbs are 
far more extensive than the city, standing at a considerable 
distance from the walls. The houses are generally of 
brick covered with stucco, in a more durable manner than 
commonly practised in England ; the finest sand being 
chosen, and the lime, after having been slacked, remaining 
for a twelvemonth, covered with sand and boards, before 
it be applied to the intended use. The chief edifices are 
the metropolitan church of St. Stephen, the imperial palace, 
library, and arsenal, the house of assembly for the states 
of lower Austria, the council-house, the university, and 
some monasteries. Provisions of all kinds abound in Vien¬ 
na, particularly wild boars, venison, and game ; many small 
birds rejected by us being included among the latter. Livers 
of geese are esteemed a peculiar delicacy; nor are tor¬ 
toises, frogs, and snails rejected. 

Next in importance to Vienna was Milan, the inhabitants 
of which were computed at more than 130,000. The loss 
of Milan will be richly recompensed by the acquisition of 
Venice, supposed to contain 200,000 souls. The latter 
celebrated city, singularly situated in the lagunes, or shal¬ 
lows of the Adriatic sea, and secured in a great measure 
from the fury of the waves by exterior shoals, which form 
a natural fortification on that side, has been frequently de¬ 
scribed. 

The honour of the third city in the Austrian dominions 
must be claimed by Prague, the population being estimated 
at 80,000. This metropolis of Bohemia stands on both 
sides of the river Mulda, over which there is a noble bridge 
of stone, founded in 1357. The houses are of stone, and 
commonly three stories in height ; and about a sixth part 
of the population consists of Jews. 

Next, though at a great distance, stands Gratz, the ca¬ 
pital of Stiria, supposed to hold 35,000 souls. This city 
stands on the west side of the river Muehr, joined by a 
bridge to an extensive suburb on the opposite bank. 

Presburg, the capital of Hungary, only contains about 
27,000 inhabitants; it is beautifully situated on the Danube, 
towards the western extremity of Hungary, being only 
about 35 British miles to the east of Vienna. About one 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


117 


quartei of the inhabitants are Lutherans, who are so opulent 
ns to pay about one half the taxes. 

Buda, by the Germans called Often, the ancient metro¬ 
polis of Hungary, with the city of Pesth, which stands on 
the opposite side of the Danube, over which there is a bridge 
of boats, may be computed at 34,000. The chief public 
and private buildings are in Pesth, and within the fortress: 
the royal palace in particular is a large and stately edifice. 

Lastly 1 rieste, which is reckoned at 18,000 deserves 
moi e particular attention, having been for a long time the 
only sea-port belonging to Austria. It is situated on a gulph 
of the Adriatic, and rises on an ascent which is crowned 
by a castle. 1 he shipping is secured by a wall, extending 
from the Lazaretto to the isle of Zuka ; and the harbour 
was declared free by the empress Theresa. The neigh¬ 
bourhood produces excellent wines. 

Edifices. The chief public edifices are at Vienna, 

Buda, and Pesth, to which may now be added Venice ; but 
there are many splendid churches and monasteries in the 
several regions of the Austrian domination. Many of the 
Hungarian nobility, who have vast estates, possess castles 
of corresponding magnificence. 

Manufactures and Commerce. Vienna per¬ 
haps equals any other of the Austrian cities in manufac¬ 
tures, which are chiefly of silk, gold and silver lace, cloths, 
stuffs, stockings, linen, mirrors, porcelain: with silver 
plate, and several articles in brass. Bohemia is celebrated 
for beautiful glass and paper. But the commerce of the 
Austrian dominions chiefly depends upon their native opu¬ 
lence : Austria proper and the southern provinces producing 
abundance of horses and cattle, corn, flax, saffron, and va¬ 
rious wines, with several metals, particularly quicksilver 
from the mines of Idria. Bohemia and Moravia are also 
rich in oxen and sheep, corn, flax, and hemp ; in which 
they are rivalled by the dismembered provinces of For 
land. Hungary presents numerous herds of cattle ; and 
the more favoured parts of that country produce corn, rice, 
the rich wines of Tokay, and tobacco of an exquisite flavour, 
with great and celebrated mines of various metals and mi¬ 
nerals. Till the acquisition of Venice, the chief exports 
were from the port of Trieste, consisting of quicksilver 
and other metals, with wines and various native products : 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


118 

the various produce of the rich kingdom of Hungary, being 
chiefly conveyed to the other Austrian provinces. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of Austria 
proper is commonly mild and salubrious, though some¬ 
times exposed to violent winds, and the southern provinces 
in general enjoy a delightful temperature, it the mountain¬ 
ous parts be excepted. The more northern regions of Bo¬ 
hemia and Moravia, with the late acquisitions in Poland, 
can likewise boast the maturity of the grape, and of gentle 
and favourable weather. The numerous lakes and mo¬ 
rasses of Hungary, and the prodigious plains, are supposed 
to render the air damp and unwholesome, the cold of the 
night rivalling the heat of the day ; but the blasts from the 
Carpathian mountains seem in some measure to remedy 
these evils, the inhabitants being rather remarkable for 
health and vigour. 

Soil and Agriculture. The soil is upon the 
whole extremely fertile and productive, in spite of the ne¬ 
glect of industry, which flas permitted many parts of Hun¬ 
gary, and of the Polish provinces, to pass into wide forests 
and marshes. The state of agriculture in Moravia is supe¬ 
rior to the rest, being improved by Flemish farmers. 

Rivers. In enumerating the chief rivers which 
pervade the Austrian dominions, the Danube commands 
the first attention. This magnificent stream rises in Swabia. 
Though the course be occasionally impeded by small falls 
and whirlpools, yet it is navigable through a prodigious 
extent, and after watering Swabia, Bavaria, Austria proper, 
Hungary, and Turkey in Europe, it joins the Euxine, or 
Black sea, after a circuit of about 1300 British miles, about 
one half of its progress being through the territories of 
Austria. 

Next in consequence is the Tiess, which arising from 
the Carpathian mountains, and bending towards the west, 
receives many tributary streams from that Alpine chain ; 
and afterwards turning to the S. falls into the Danube, after 
a course of about 420 miles. At Belgrade the Danube 
receives the Sau, or Save, which forms a boundary between 
Austria and Turkey. That of the Drau or Drave extends 
to about 350 miles, from its source in the eastern moun¬ 
tains of Tyrol, till it joins the Danube below Esseg. 

The Inn rises in the E. of Swisserland, from the moun¬ 
tain of Maloggia in the Orisons, being a point of partition 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


119 


dividing the waters which run towards the Black sea, from 
those which flow into the Adriatic. This powerful river 
is more gentle near its source, than the other Alpine 
streams, but soon becomes more precipitous ; and joins the 
Danube at Passau with a weight of water nearly equal to 
that stream, after a course of about 250 miles. 

Lakes. The lakes in the Austrian dominions are 
numerous, and some of them of considerable size. Ca- 
rinthia contains a large central lake not far from Clagen- 
furt ; and Carniola another, the Cirknitz See. Hungary 
contains many morasses, and lakes ; the most important 
of the latter being that of Platte, or the Flatten See, extend¬ 
ing about forty-five British miles in length, by eight in 
breadth, and abounding with fish. The Neufidler lake, 
about thirty miles S. E. of Vienna, is about thirteen miles 
in length by four in breadth. 

Mountains. Beginning at the western extremi¬ 
ties, the Rhaetian or Tyrolese Alps claim our first atten¬ 
tion. These chiefly proceed in a direction from the S. W. 
to the N. E. or from the Valteline to the archbishopric of 
Salzburg. The Brenner mountains, for such is the mo¬ 
dern name of the Rhsetian Alps, rival the grand Alps of 
Swisserland in numerous glaciers ; and like other grand 
chains present exterior barriers, that on the N. being dis¬ 
tinguished by the name of Spitz, while that on the S. is 
termed Vedretta. On leaving Italy there is almost a gradual 
ascent, from Trent to the highest summit. The greatest 
elevations arise to the N. of Sterzing, whence streams 
proceed towards the river Inn on the N. and the Adige on 
the S. and the Eisac descends, a precipitous torrent, amidst 
masses of granite, petrosilex, and marble. The glacier 
most easy of access is that of Stuben ; it is 4,692 feet above 
the level of the sea, and presents the usual phenomena of 
such scenes, with beautiful pyramids of azure, which in 
sunshine reflect ablaze of light. 

Towards the W. and N. of Inspruck are several detached 
mountains, covered with constant snow. Near the glaciers 
are found rock crystals of various colours, and the inferior 
ranges of the Tyrolese mountains contain mines of silver, 
copper, lead, mercury, iron, alum, and sulphur. 

Upper Austria, or the western part of this province, con¬ 
tains many considerable mountains, the highest of which 
is in the maps called Priel. There are many other groups 


120 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


of mountains in the Austrian territories worthy of notice, 
which it would exceed our limits to describe. 

However we must not omit the Carpathian mountains, 
that grand and extensive chain which bounds Hungary on 
the N. and E. having been celebrated from all antiquity. 
By the Germans they are styled the mountains of Krapak, 
probably the original name, which was softened by the 
Roman enunciation. This enormous ridge extends in a 
semicircular form from the mountain of Javornik S. of Si¬ 
lesia towards the N. W. But at the mountain of Trojaska, 
the most northern summit, it bends to the S. E. to the con¬ 
fines of the Buckovina, where it sends forth two branches, 
one to the E. another to the W. of Transylvania; which is 
also divided from Walachia by a branch running S. W. 
and N. E. The whole circuit may be about 500 miles. 
The highest summits of these mountains, according to 
Dr. Townson, do not exceed 8 or 9000 feet, and they are 
for the most part composed of granite and primitive lime¬ 
stone. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
forests of Germany have been famous from the earliest 
antiquity. The Sylva Ilercynia which extended from the 
Rhine to Sarmatia, from Cologne to Poland, are known o 
every boy who has read the ancient classics. Though by 
the progress of civilization and improvement many of these 
forests have been removed, there are still considerable re¬ 
mains in the Black forest of Swabia, and other uncultivated 
tracts.—The principal native trees are the elm ; the wych 
elm ; lime tree ; birch, and alder ; common and prickly- 
cupped oak ; sumach ; walnut; chesnut and beech ; horn¬ 
beam ; black and white poplar and aspen ; sycamore and 
maple ; the ash; the pine, the fir, the yew-leaved fir, and 
the larch. All the common fruit trees of Europe are cul¬ 
tivated in an extensive manner. 

The domestic animals in the Austrian dominions are 
commonly excellent, particularly the cattle. Many of the 
native horses run wild, and are sold in great numbers at 
the fairs, before they have suffered any subjection. The 
breed of cattle is mostly of a singular colour, a slaty blue ; 
and the Hungarian sheep resemble the Walachian in their 
long erect spiral horns, and pendant hairy fleece. In the 
western parts of the Austrian sovereignty, the animals do 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 121 

not seem to be distinguished from those of other parts of 
Germany. 

The large breed of wild cattle called Urus or Bison, 
is said to be found in the Carpathian forests, as well as in 
those of Lithuania and Caucasus. Among the wild qua¬ 
drupeds, may also be named the bear, the boar, the wolf, 
the chamois, the marmot, and the beaver. The Danube 
boasts of some fishes seldom found in other rivers, among 
which is a small and delicate sort of salmon. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of the Austrian do¬ 
minions is by far the most various and interesting of any in 
Europe. There is scarcely a province of this extensive 
territory, which cannot boast of advantages in the mineral 
kingdom ; even the acquisitions in Poland contain one of 
the most remarkable mines in Europe, the saline excava¬ 
tions of Wielitska. The mines of Bohemia have been ce¬ 
lebrated from ancient times. Silver is found at Kuttenberg, 
and at Joachinsthal, on the western frontiers towards 
Saxony ; and gold has been discovered at Keonstock. One 
of the most singular products of this province is tin, which 
is found at Zinwald (that is the tin forest), and other west¬ 
ern districts of Bohemia; where is also found, at Drey- 
hacken, a mine of very pure copper. Lead occurs at Bley- 
stadt, in the same quarter. The garnets of Bohemia are 
among the most beautiful of the kind. The women wash 
the clay in which the garnets are found ; after which they 
are sifted and arranged according to size ; and sold by the 
pound weight from about three to ten shillings. The 
iron of Stiria supplies the finest steel, and great quan¬ 
tities are imported into England: there are considerable 
lead mines near Pegau on the river Mohr, yielding about 
5000 tons yearly. Stiria also affords coal at different 
places. 

The quicksilver mines of Idra are celebrated in natural 
history, poetry, and romance. They were discovered in 
the year 1499 ; and the hill of Vogelberg has annually 
yielded more than 300,000 pounds weight of mercury. 

But the principal mines in the Austrian dominions are 
situated in the eastern provinces of Hungary and Transyl¬ 
vania. About 40 miles to the S. of the Carpathian hills 
are the gold mines of Cremnitz: and 20 English miles fur¬ 
ther to the S. the silver mines of Chemnitz: cities which 
have arisen solely from these labours, and thence called min- 

L 


122 


AUSTRIAN DOMINIONS. 


ing towns. Chemnitz is esteemed the principal. The 
academy here instituted for the study of mineralogy is 
higlily respectable, and only rivalled by that of Freybergin 
Saxony. Hungary contains mines of copper at Schmel- 
nitz and Herrengrund ; of very rich antimony at Rosenau; 
and in different parts of coal, salt, and alum. But a mine¬ 
ral peculiar to Hungary, and as yet discovered in no other 
region of the globe, is the opal, a gem preferred to all 
others by the oriental nations. 

Natural Curiosities. Among the natural cu¬ 
riosities may be named the grand Alpine scenes of Tyrol, 
the glaciers and peaks of the Brenner. In Carniola near 
Adlesburg, is said to be a grotto of prodigious extent dis¬ 
playing spaces sufficient for the erection of villages, and 
containing natural amphitheatres, bridges, &c. But the 
chief natural curiosity of Carniola is the lake of Cirknitz, 
called by Dr. Brown the Zirchnitzer See. That traveller 
informs us that it is about two German, or more than eight 
English miles in length, by four of the latter in breadth. 
In the month of June the water descends under ground, 
through many apertures in the bottom; and in September 
it reascends with considerable force ; thus yielding rich 
pasture in summer, while in winter it abounds with fish. 


PRUSSIA. 


THIS kingdom which only commenced with the eigh¬ 
teenth century, has by gradual accessions, not the most 
honourable, become so extensive, as to rank among the 
first powers of Europe. 

The name of the cpuntry originates, according to some 
authors, from the Pruzzi, a Slavonic tribe, its ancient inha¬ 
bitants. 

Extent. Exclusive of small detached territories, 
the kingdom of Prussia now extends from Hornburg and 
the river Oker in the country of Halberstadt, the furthest 
western connected district, to the river Memel, or about 
600 miles. The breadth, from the southern limit of Silesia 
to Dantzick, exceeds 300 miles. On the east and south, 
Prussia now borders on the dominions of Russia and Aus¬ 
tria, and the western limits adjoin to the bishopric of Hil- 
desheim. Before the recent acquisitions in Poland the 
number of Prussian subjects was only computed at 
1 5,621,500, in a total extent of 56,414 square miles, that 
is about 99 to the square mile. At present they amount 
to above eight millions, and the kingdom is divided into 22 
provin ces. 

Historical Epochs. As the family which now 
rules those extensive domains was originally the electoral 
house of Brandenburg, it will be proper in this place to 
trace the progress of its power. 

1. The emperor Charles IV. in 1373, assigned Bran¬ 
denburg to his second son Sigismund, who in 1415, being 
then emperor of Germany, sold th s margraviate and elec¬ 
torate to Frederick burgrave of Nuremburg, for 400,000 
ducats. This prince was the ancestor of the present reign¬ 
ing race. 




124 


PRUSSIA. 


2. Joachin II. elector of Brandenburg, embraced the 
Lutheran religion in 1539, which has since been the ruling 
system of the state. 

3. John Sigismond becomes duke of Prussia in 1618. 

4. Frederic William, surnamed the great elector, suc¬ 
ceeded his father in 1640 ; and in 1656 compelled the king 
of Poland to declare Prussia an independent state, it having 
formerly been held of the Polish sovereigns. He was suc¬ 
ceeded in 1688, by his son. 

5. Frederic III. who, supporting the emperor in the 
contest for the Spanish succession, was by him declared 
king of Prussia: under which title he was proclaimed at 
Konigsberg, on the 18th day of January, 1701, he himself 
placing the crown upon his head. 

6. Frederic William II. ascended the throne in 1713. 
But he was chiefly remarkable as the father of that great 
prince Frederic II. who ascended the throne in 1740, and 
died in 1786, after a long and glorious reign ; the most me¬ 
morable and lasting event of which was the acquisition of 
Silesia from the house of Austria in 1742. 

7. The short reign of his nephew is known to every 
reader. The reign of his son, the present monarch, has 
hitherto been distinguished by a mysterious coalition with 
the French republic. 

Antiquities. Some Slavonic idols, cast in bronze, 
constitute almost the only pagan antiquities; and the castles, 
and churches erected after the introduction of the Chris¬ 
tian religion, have few singularities to attract particular at¬ 
tention. The Polish coinage begins about the twelfth cen¬ 
tury, and is upon the German model. 

Religion. The ruling religion of Prussia is the 
Protestant, under its two chief divisions of Lutheran and 
Calvinistic. But after the recent acquisitions in Poland 
it would seem that the greater number of the inhabitants 
must be Roman Catholic. The universal toleration which 
has been wisely embraced by the Prussian monarchs, has 
had its usual effect of abating theological enmity, and the 
different sects seem to live in perfect concord. 

Government, See. As no vestige of any senate 
or delegates from the people is known in this kingdom, it 
must be pronounced an absolute government; but the spi¬ 
rit and good sense of the nation unite with the wisdom and 
mildness of successive monarchs, to render the sovereignty 


PRUSSIA. 


125 


as conciliatory, and perhaps more beneficent, than if clog¬ 
ged with a popular senate. The late great monarch re¬ 
formed many abuses in the laws ; but it cannot be disguised 
that the tenor of his government was too military and 
despotic. 

Army. The army is supposed to amount to about 
237,000, including about 40,000 cavalry. The tactics of the 
late able sovereign conferred distinguished reputation on 
the Prussian battalions, but they are now supposed not to 
exceed the Austrian. 

Revenues. Before the addition of Polish territory 
the revenue was estimated at 3,880,000/. sterling ; and the 
expence of the army at 2,275,000/. Frederic II. laudably 
expended about half a million sterling yearly, in the im¬ 
provement of his dominions. The entire revenue of Po¬ 
land was not computed to exceed 439,546/. sterling. If 
we even suppose half of this added to the Prussian revenue, 
the result would not be important; Prussia, however, has 
no national debt. 

Political Importance and Relations. The 
political importance and relations of this kingdom have 
impressed the European history of this century with new 
and distinct features. An alliance with Prussia would be 
indeed of some importance to the Turkish empire ; nor 
can it be the interest of Prussia to permit Ftussia to extend 
her aggrandizements. 

In regard to the other chief powers of Europe, England, 
France, Russia and Austria, it cannot be disguised that 
there is a natural connexion between ' russia and France, 
as both are, or affect to be jealous of the Austrian pow r er, 
and both are disposed to dismember I urope. But it would 
be wisdom in Prussia by uniting with Austria, Denmark 
and Sweden, to raise a power sufficient at once, to check 
the colossal strides of France and Kussia. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of a country composed of such various inhabitants, 
must of course be discordant. The Saxons are a lively 
and contented people; the Prussians appear dull and 
gloomy. As to the Poles, they seem full df life and ac¬ 
tion. but their features and general appearance are rather 
Asiatic than European. “ Men of all ranks generally wear 
whiskers, and shave their heads, leaving only a circle of hair 
upon the crown. The dress of the higher orders, both 

L 2 


126 


PRUSSIA. 


men and women, is commonly elegant. That of the gen¬ 
tlemen is a waistcoat with sleeves, over which they wear 
an upper robe of a different colour, which reaches down 
below the knee, and is fastened round the waist with a sash 
or girdle; the sleeves of this upper garment are, in warm 
weather tied behind their shoulders ; a sabre is a necessary 
part of their dress as a mark of nobility. In summer the 
robe, &c. is of silk, in winter of cloth, velvet, or stuff edged 
with fur. They wear fur caps or bonnets, and buskins of 
yellow leather, the heels of which are plated with iron or 
steel. The dress of the ladies is a simple polonaise or long 
robe, edged with fur.” 

Language. The ruling language of Prussia is 
the German, which it is probable may in time supplant the 
Polish, in those parts which are subject to Prussia and 
Austria. 

Public Schools. The state of education in this 
country seems to be equally neglected as in the far greater 
part of Europe. 

There are however several universities, such as that of 
Frankfort on the Oder, founded by Joachim elector of 
Brandenburg in the year 15 16. Konigsberg, in Prussia 
was founded in 1544. 

Cities and Towns. Among the cities of Prussia 
we can mention only a few of the chief. Berlin, situated 
on the banks of the river Sprey, is a regularly fortified city. 
It was founded in the twelfth century, by a colony from the 
Netherlands, and contains 142,000 inhabitants, being about 
four miles and a half long and three wide ; but within this 
inclosure are many gardens, and sometimes even fields ; 
the number of houses is 6950. The city is more remark¬ 
able for the elegance of the buildings than for its wealth 
or industry, many beautiful houses being let in stories to 
mechanics. Next to Berlin may be mentioned Konigs¬ 
berg, of which the population is computed at about 52,000. 
This city was founded in the thirteenth century, and is 
well fortified. It maintains a considerable trade by the 
river Pregel, which flows into the gulph of Dantzick. 

Breslaw, the capital of Silesia, has been long celebrated 
as one of the most beautiful cities in Germany. It is of 
uncertain antiquity, but was destroyed by the Tatars in the 
thirteenth century. The population is at least equal to 
that ol Konigsberg; and it has several manufactures, the 


PRUSSIA. 


127 


linens of Silesia being particularly celebrated. The ruling 
religion is that of Luther. 

Among chief cities of Prussia must not be forgotten 
Warsaw, the former capital of Poland ; and Dantzick, an 
independent city of ancient fame. Warsaw stands partly 
in a plain, partly on a gentle ascent rising from the Vistu¬ 
la, but the appearance is melancholy, from the general po¬ 
verty of Poland under its former unhappy government. The 
population was computed at 70,000, including the unfortu¬ 
nate suburb of Praga. 

Dantzick contains about 36,000 inhabitants, and was 
known as a commercial town even from the tenth century. 
It was considered as the chief city of the Hanseatic league, 
and was enlarged and adorned by the knights of the Teu- 
tonick order. It must still be considered as the chief staple 
for the exportation of the corn and the other products of 
Poland ; but its commerce has been for some time on the 
decline. 

Magdeburg is supposed to hold about 26,000 souls, and 
is strongly fortified with a citadel on an isle in the Elbe. 
This city dates its origin from the time of Charlemagne ; 
and can boast of ele* ant streets and flourishing manu¬ 
factures. The Imperialists taking it by storm in 1631, a 
dreadful slaughter ensued the inhabitants who perished 
being computed at about 10,000. 

Edifices. Some of the most splendid edifices of 
this country adorn Berlin the capital, such as the palace 
and the theatre. The city itself is almost entirely built 
with brick, though the fronts of the houses are disguised 
with stucco, 'i he palace at Potsdam deserves superior ap¬ 
plause ; and on an eminence near the city stands the royal 
villa of Sans ' ouci, which however can claim no grandeur 
of external architecture. In general this kingdom yields 
even to Russia in respect to public edifices. 

Manufactures and ■ ommerce. If we except 
the linens of Silesia, the manufactures of the Prussian do¬ 
minions are of small importance. \ et they afford for home 
consumption, glass, iron, brass, paper, and woollen cloth ; 
and Frederic II. introduced a small manufacture of silk. 
Even the exports of Dantzick consist almost entirely of 
timber, corn, tallow, and similar articles. 

If we except the ancient staple of grain so abundant in 
the level plains of Poland, the commerce of Prussia is com- 


128 


PRUSSIA. 


paratively of little consequence. Amber is by nature con¬ 
stituted a monopoly of the country, but fashion has render¬ 
ed this branch of commerce insignificant. Yet among the 
considerable exports may be named excellent timber of all 
kinds, skins, leather, flax, and hemp ; nor must the linens 
of Silesia be passed in silence, many of which are sent into 
Holland, and sold under the name of Dutch manufacture. 
In return Prussia receives wine, and other products of more 
southern and favoured countries. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of the Prus¬ 
sian dominions is, upon the whole, cold and moist. Bran¬ 
denburg and Pomerania may be regarded as more free from 
humidity than Prussia proper, which has about eight months 
of winter, the autumns being often deluged with rain. The 
northern part of Poland abounds with forests and marshes, 
which cannot be supposed to render the air salubrious. The 
lower parts of Silesia are regarded as the most healthy and 
fertile provinces of the monarchy : but the southern and 
western parts of the duchy, bordering on elevated mountains, 
long covered with snow, are exposed even in summer to 
severe freezing gales. 

Soil and Agriculture. The soil of Branden¬ 
burg is meagre, and even the space between Berlin and 
Potsdam resembles a wilderness ; but that of Prussian Po¬ 
land is loamy and fertile. The northern extremity of 
Silesia resembles Brandenburg, yet this province is in ge¬ 
neral extremely productive, and abounds in fruits and cu¬ 
linary vegetables. 

Agricultural improvements are little known, and Bran¬ 
denburg chiefly produces buck wheat and turnips, w ith 
scanty crops of rye; but Prussia proper, and the Polish 
provinces display every kind of grain, and esculent plant, 
that can flourish under such a latitude ; and among the pro¬ 
ductions of Mlesia must be classed maize, and even vines, 
but the wine is of inferior quality. 

Rivers Among the chief rivers of the Prussian 
dominions may be first mentioned the Elbe, which rises 
in the S. of Bohemia,- and pervades the duchy of Magde¬ 
burg. The Spree which passes by Berlin, falls into the 
Havel, a tributary of the Elbe. The Oder may be regarded 
as'a river entirely Prussian : it rises in the mountains of 
Moravia, and after watering Silesia, Brandenburg, and Po¬ 
merania, joins the Baltic, after a course of about 350 miles. 


PRUSSIA. 


122 


Next appears another noble stream, the Vistula, which 
rising in the Carpathian mountains, passes Warsaw, and 
joins the sea near Dantzick, after a circuit of about 450 
miles. 

Lakes. The lakes in the Prussian dominions are 
numerous, especially in the eastern part, wiiere among 
others may be mentioned the Spelding See, which, with 
its creeks, extends more than twenty British miles in every 
direction. That region contains many other lakes, which 
supply the sources of the river Pregel. And at their estu¬ 
aries the rivers Oder, Vistula, and Memel, present singu¬ 
lar inland sheets of water, in the German language called 
Raffs. 

Mountains. The only mountains in the Prussian 
dominions are those of Silesia, which may be regarded as 
a northern branch of the Carpathian chain. This branch 
extends from Jablunka S. E. to Friedberg in upper Lusatia, 
N. W. near 200 British miles in length, and is called Sude- 
tische Gebirge, or the Sudetic mountains. In the north¬ 
western parts of Silesia are also detached mountains of 
considerable height, as the Spitzberg and Gratzberg. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. Among 
the indigenous vegetables of the Prussian dominions there 
do not seem to be any which have not already been suffi¬ 
ciently noticed in the preceding accounts of Britain and 
Austria. Tobacco, originally a native of America, and 
probably also of the east, having been long cultivated in 
Prussia, has at length established itself in the soil, and is 
found in the ploughed fields and hedges, as a common 
weed. 

The breeds of horses and cattle seem not to have im¬ 
pressed travellers with any distinction from those of the ad¬ 
jacent countries ; and few parts are calculated for excellent 
breeds of sheep. The urus, or large and ferocious wild 
cattle of Lithuania, have also appeared in Prussia proper, 
but the race seems nearly extinct. One of its chief haunts 
was the forest of Masavia not far from Warsaw. 

Minerals. The sand and plains of Prussia con¬ 
tain but few hidden treasures. There are some mines of 
copper and lead as well as considerable founderies of iron 
in Silesia. Agates, jaspers, and rock crystal, are also found 
in the Silesian mountains. Coal, a more useful mineral, 


130 


PRUSSIA. 


occurs in various parts of Silesia, and the level districts 
sometimes offer good peat moors. 

But the most distinguished and peculiar mineral produc¬ 
tion of Prussia is amber, which is chiefly found on the Sam- 
land shore of the Baltic. It is found at the depth of about 
100 feet, reposing on wood coal, in lumps of various sizes, 
some five pounds in weight, and is often washed on shore, 
by tempests. It adds about 5000/. yearly to the royal re¬ 
venue. 


SPAIN. 


SPAIN appears to have been known to the Phoenicians, 
who imported from it large quantities of silver, near 1000 
years before the birth of Christ. From the noble river Iberus, 
or Ebro, the country was called Iberia ; and from, its ex¬ 
treme situation in the west it was also styled Hesperia. The 
Romans, probably from a native term, have fixed and hand¬ 
ed down Hi-spania; which has been variously adapted to the 
idiom of modern languages. 

Extent. Spain lies between the 36th and 44th de¬ 
grees of north latitude; and its western extremity is about 
9° in longitude W. from London. The greatest length 
W. to E. is about 600 miles ; the breadth N. to S. more 
than 500 ; thus forming almost a compact square (if we 
include Portugal in this general view of the country), and 
surrounded on all sides by the sea, except where the Py¬ 
renean chain forms a grand natural barrier against France. 
Spain is supposed to contain about 148,000 square miles; 
which, estimating the population at 11,000,000, yield 74 
persons to the mile square. 

Original Population. The original population 
of Spain seems to have consisted of Celts from Gaul, and 
of Moors from Africa ; but the latter, a more warlike race, 
expelled the former, and even passed into Aquitain in 
France. After the German Gauls had colonized the south 
of modern France, where they were called Galli Braccati, 
they began to make expeditions into Spain, and seized the 
region to the N. E. becoming the Celtiberi of classical 
geography. It is probable that the African settlers were 
not a little assisted in the expulsion of the primeval Celts 
by the Pbcenicians, and afterwards by the Carthaginians, 
whence the latter maintained such sway in distant parts of 




132 


SPAIN. 


this country. Towards the east large colonies of Car¬ 
thaginians, and afterwards of Homans were introduced. 
In the fifth century it was conquered by the Vandals; 
but, being afterwards weakened by their settlements in 
Africa, they were subdued by the Visigoths, who founded 
the modern kingdom of Spain, and from whom the more 
ancient families still pretend to derive their origin. The 
Mahometan Moors having been expelled, they must not 
be considered in the estimate, though a few families may 
be of Arabian extract : and the modern Spaniards may be 
considered as descended from the African Iberians, the 
Celtiberians, or German Gauls, the Romans, and the Vi¬ 
sigoths. 

Historical Epochs. The chief historical epochs 
of Spain are; 

1. The original population by the Africans, and German 
Gauls. 

2. The Carthaginian acquisitions in Spain. 

3. The conquest by the Romans, who maintained pos¬ 
session for mere than five centuries. 

4. The subjection of Spain to the Vandals, about the 
year 415. 

5. The conquest of Spain by the Visigoths under Euric, 
excepting Galicia, held by the Suevi, who had entered with 
the Vandals. The Galicians have to this day a distinct 
character of superior industry. In Euric, A. D. 472, com¬ 
mences the modern kingdom and history of Spain. 

6. The conquest by the Arabs, or Moors, which began 
A. D. 709, and soon extended over all Spain, except the 
mountains of Asturias, where king Pelagius maintained a 
confined dominion over that district and Biscay. His de¬ 
scendants fixed the royal residence at Oviedo, built in 761, 
and not only defended their small territory, which was natu¬ 
rally fortified with chains of mountains, but soon regained 
Galicia, and part of Leon and Castile. In 914, as the terri¬ 
tory extended towards the south, the kings began to reside 
at Leon, and thence derived their title; to which, in the 
eleventh century, was added that of Castile. But the 
Moors must be regarded as the chief possessors of Spain 
till the middle of the thirteenth century. 

7. The reign of Alphonso the Wise, which began A. D. 
1252, and which rivalled those of the Spanish chalifs in 
the protection afforded to the arts and sciences. 


SPAIN. 


133 


8. The conquest of the kingdom of Granada, the last of 
the Moorish royalties ; and the junction of the important 
crowns of Castile and Arragon, in the persons of Ferdi¬ 
nand and Isabella. 

9. The reign of Charles V. son of Philip of Austria, who 
married the heiress of Arragon and Castile, and establish¬ 
ed the Spanish monarchy on its present basis. The wealth 
of America, discovered in the reign of Ferdinand and Isa¬ 
bella, now began to impart exuberant supplies, and the 
power of Spain arrived at its zenith. 

10. Acquisition of Portugal by Philip II. A. D. 1580. 

11. The revolt of Portugal under Philip IV. A. D. 
1640; which has since existed as a separate kingdom, 
alter having been subject to the Spaniards for sixty years. 

12. The termination of the Austrian dynasty by the death 
of Charles II. November 1 , 1700 ; and the accession of the 
house ol Bourbon ; since which no epoch of singular con¬ 
sequence has ar : sen. 

Divisions. The most recent sub-divisions of 
Spain are into fourteen provinces, viz: 

1. Galicia. 2. Asturias. 3. Biscay. 4. Navarre. 5. 
Arragon. 6. Catalonia. 7. Valentia. 8. Murcia. 9. 
Granada. 10 . Andalusia. 11 . Estremadura. 12 . Leon. 

13. Old Castile. And 14. New Castile. 

Antiquities. The only certain relics of the Car¬ 

thaginians in Spain, are coins, which have been found in 
considerable numbers. 

The Roman antiquities are, on the contrary, so numer¬ 
ous, that to enter into details on the subject would be prolix, 
and foreign to the nature of this work. The aqueduct at 
Segovia is one of the noblest of the Roman edifices. Mor- 
viedo, the ancient Saguntum, presents many curious re¬ 
mains of antiquity. Tarragona, the ancient Tarraco, also 
contains several interesting monuments. 

The Visigothic kings have left few relics, except their 
coins, which are struck in gold; a metal then unknown to 
the other European mints, and seemingly native. 

Numerous and splendid are the monuments ofthe Moors 
in Spain, of which we will only describe Alhambra^ an ancient 
Moorish palace in Granada: 

“ You enter first into an oblong court of 150 feet by 90, 
with a basin of water in the midst, of 100 feet in length, 
encompassed by a flower border. At each end is a colon- 

M 


131 


SPAIN. 


nade. From hence you pass into the court of the lions, so 
called because the fountain in the middle is supported by 
thirteen lions It is adorned with a colonnade of 140 mar¬ 
ble pillars. The royal bedchamber has two alcoves, adorn¬ 
ed with columns, and a fountain between them in the mid¬ 
dle of the room. Adjoining to this are two hot baths. 
The great hall is about 40 feet square, and 60 in height, 
with eight windows and two doors, all in deep recesses. 
Between this and the oblong court is a gallery of 90 feet 
by 16. All these lower apartments have fountains, and are 
paved either with tiles or marble in checkers. The idea 
of the ceilings is evidently taken from stalactites , or drop- 
stones, found in the roofs of natural caverns. The orna¬ 
ments of the friezes are arabesque, and perfectly accord 
with Arabic inscriptions, which are here suited to the 
purpose for which each apartment was designed.” Above 
is a suit of elegant apartments for the winter. This edifice 
was finished A. D. 1336. 

Religion. The religion of Spain is the Roman 
Catholic, which in this country and Portugal has been car¬ 
ried to a pitch of fanaticism unknown to the Italian states, 
or even to the papal territory ; though the evil has been re¬ 
cently subdued in a considerable degree. 

The clergy and religious in Spain, including the various 
orders of monks and nuns, are very numerous, amounting 
to 118,625. 

The archbishoprics are eight: bishoprics forty-six. The 
most opulent see is that of Toledo, which is supposed to 
yield annually about 90,000/. The Mozarabic Missal, 
composed by St. Isidore for the Gothic church, after the 
conversion from Arianism to the Catholic faith, continued 
to be used in Spain till the Moors were subdued, when the 
Roman form was introduced. 

Government. The government of Spain is well 
known to be despotic, the states or cortes having hardly 
been assembled since the time of Charles V. But the des¬ 
potism of the monarchy is here balanced by the power of 
the church, to which the nobles are submissive devotees. 
It is also tempered by many councils, who are responsible 
for any unwise or unsuccessful measures, and the subject 
is less oppressed by the power of the crown, than in some 
other states where there is a greater appearance of liberty. 


SPAIN. 


135 


The laws of Spain are contained in several ancient 
c °des; and recourse is also had to the civil and canon 
law. . The Escrivanos are numerous, and instead of ex¬ 
plaining the codes, often impede the administration of 
justice. Mistaken mercy frequently retains criminals in 
long durance, so that when they are executed their offence 
is forgotten, and the example of punishment becomes in¬ 
efficacious. 

Population. The population of this kingdom is 
computed at 11,000,000, or 74 to a square mile ; while the 
kingdom of Naples is computed at 201. This striking de- 
f ect of population has been attributed to the expulsion of 
the Jews after the conquest of Granada; that of the Moors 
by Philip III. the contagious fevers frequent in the southern 
pio\ inces ; the incessant intestine wars, for seven centuries 
carried on against the Moors; the emigrations to America, 
and the vast numbers of unmarried clergy and monks. 

In the year 1787, the population of Spain was thus ar¬ 
ranged : 

Males unmarried,. 2,926,229 


Females ditto, 
Married Men, 
Married Women, 
Widows, 


2,753,224 

1,947,165 

1,943,496 

462,258 

10,032,372 


Army and Navy. The Spanish armies, instead 
of carrying terror even into the bravest countries of Eu¬ 
rope, as they did two centuries ago, are now neither distin¬ 
guished by number, nor by discipline. They are computed 
at about 60,000. Of late Spain has paid considerable at¬ 
tention to her navy, which has however been crippled in 
the recent warfare with England. The ships of the line 
can scarcely now be computed at less than fifty. 

Revenues. The revenue of Spain may be calcu¬ 
lated, as is believed, at five millions and a half sterling 
money ; so that each person pays ten shillings to govern¬ 
ment for protection. In France, under the old govern¬ 
ment, each person paid near twenty shillings; in England 
at present sixty shillings. The expenditure now equals, 
or exceeds the income ; but the national debt is a mere 
trifle. 





136 


SPAIN. 


Political Importance and Relations. The 
political importance and relations of Spain were formerly 
deeply impressed on most regions of the globe. But this 
fertile kingdom has become almost a cypher in European 
policy. Setting aside Portugal, the position of Spain se¬ 
cures her from any invasion, except on the side of France ; 
and it becomes therefore the insuperable interest of this ex¬ 
hausted state to cultivate amity with her powerful neigh¬ 
bour, which must maintain an unavoidable and supreme as¬ 
cendant, from geographical position and relative force. 
What a spirited and popular monarch might do to shake off 
this servile dependance, can only be guessed at. 

Manners and Customs. In speaking of the re¬ 
ligion of Spain, one of the most striking of the national 
customs and manners is the common practice of adultery 
under the mask of religion. 

Exclusive of this vice, the Spanish character is highly 
respectable for integrity and a long train of virtues. Con¬ 
scious of an upright and noble mind, the respect which a 
Spaniard would pay to those qualities in others, is often 
centered in himself, as he is intimately sensible that he 
possesses them. This self-respect is nearly allied to pride ; 
but it is the pride of virtue, which certainly ought not to 
humble itself before vice and folly. Temperance is a vir¬ 
tue which the Spaniard shares in common with other 
southern nations. In these countries the body is so much 
exhausted by the influence of heat, that the siesta, or short 
sleep in the middle of the day, becomes a necessary re¬ 
source of nature, and is by habit continued even in the 
winter. 

The chief defect in the character of the Spanish nobi¬ 
lity and gentry is, their aversion to agriculture and com¬ 
merce. Instead of those beautiful villas, and opulent farms 
which enrich the whole extent of England, the Spanish ar¬ 
chitecture is almost confined to the capital, and a few other 
cities and towns. 

Since the accession of the house of Bourbon, a slight 
shade of French manners has been blended with the Spa¬ 
nish gravity. But fashions have here little sway; and the 
prohibition of slouched hats and long cloaks led to a seri¬ 
ous insurrection. The houses of the great are large and 
capacious; but the cottages and inns are, on the contrary, 
miserable. 


SPAIN. 


137 


The amusements of people of rank chiefly consist in 
dancing and cards ; but the combats with bulls in the am¬ 
phitheatres have justly been regarded as the most striking 
feature of Spanish and Portuguese manners. That such 
spectacles tend to familiarise the people with bloodshed, 
seems an idle theory, unwarranted by facts. Modern Italy 
has no gladiators, but numerous assassins ; ancient Rome 
had scarcely one assassin, but whole armies of gladiators. 

Language. The Spanish language is one of the 
three great southern dialects which spring from the Ro¬ 
man ; but many of the words become difficult to the French 
or Italian student, because they are derived from the 
Arabic, used by the Moors, who for seven centuries held 
dominion in this country. The speech is grave, sonorous, 
and of exquisite melody, containing much of the slow and 
formal manner of the Orientals, who seem sensible that 
the power of speech is a privilege. 

Public Schools. The universities, or rather aca¬ 
demies, in Spain, are computed at upwards of twenty ; of 
which the most noted is that of Salamanca, founded in the 
year 1200, by Alphonso IX. king of Leon, and afterwards 
regulated by Alphonso the Wise. The students have, at 
former periods, been computed at 16,000 ; and even now 
the reign of Aristotle in logic and natural philosophy, and 
of Thomas Aquinas in theology, continues unviolated, so 
that a student of the year 1800 may aspire to as much ig¬ 
norance as one of the year 1300. In 1785 the number of 
students was computed at 1909. The same antiquated 
teachers are received with implicit faith in the other uni¬ 
versities, so that a more liberal education at school must be 
here obliterated. 

Cities and Towns. Madrid, the royal residence, 
while Seville is esteemed the capital of Spain, is of recent 
fame. Philip II. first established his court at Madrid and 
the nobility, in consequence, erecting numerous palaces, 
this formerly obscure town began to assume an air of gran¬ 
deur. The centrical position seems the chief advantage, 
for the environs can boast of little beauty or variety. I he 
river Mai^enares is in winter a torrent, but dry in sum¬ 
mer : over it is an elegant bridge, which occasioned a sar¬ 
castic remark, that the bridge should be sold in order to 
purchase water. This metropolis contains 13 parishes, 
7,938 houses, 32,745 families, amounting to a population 

M2 


138 


SPAIN. 


of 14*7,543. The convents are 66 ; and there are fifteen 
gates of granite, many of which are elegant. The chief is 
the Puerta de Alcala, of three arches, the central being 70 
feet in height. The churches and monasteries contain 
many noble paintings, and the royal palaces display consi¬ 
derable magnificence. The new palace presents four fronts 
of 470 feet in length, and 100 in height, enriched with nu¬ 
merous pillars and pilasters. The foundation was laid in 
1737, three years after the ancient palace had fallen a sa¬ 
crifice to the flames. The audience chamber is deservedly 
admired, being a double cube of 90 feet, hung with crim¬ 
son velvet, and adorned with a sumptuous canopy and 
painted ceiling. The prado is a spacious course, in which 
the great display their elegant equipages. 

Next Cadiz: the commerce of America formerly cen¬ 
tered at Seville, was afterwards removed to this city, which 
is supposed to contain about 70,000 souls. The two ca¬ 
thedrals are grand; and there is a hospital which will con¬ 
tain 6000 patients. The hospicio, or general workhouse, 
is an interesting establishment, containing more than 800 
poor of all ages, who are here trained to industry 

Malaga is esteemed the second port in the kingdom, and 
is also celebrated for excellent wines, the rich Malaga, the 
mountain, so called from the hills which produce the grape, 
and the tent or tinto, so styled from its deep red tinge. 
Malaga stands in a valley surrounded with hills, the houses 
high, the streets narrow and dirty. Inhabitants about 
40,000 ; the cathedral begun in 1528 is not yet finished ; 
the convents are 25, but of small account. The city 
swarms with thieves and mendicants. 

I owards the S. E. is the third most considerable port of 
Spain, that of Barcelona. The streets are narrow and 
crooked; the churches rather rich than beautiful. The 
hospicio contains about 1400 industrious poor, and there is 
a house of correction which sometimes includes even wo¬ 
men of rank, if guilty of drunkenness or other low vices. 
1 he inhabitants of Barcelona are computed at more than 
100,000; and industry prevails here, being a native virtue 
of the Catalonians : the chief manufactures are silk, cotton, 
and wool, excellent fire-arms and cutlery; the chief im¬ 
ports, corn, fish, and woollen goods; exports, wine, brandy, 
cloth, and leather. During peace it is supposed that 1000 


SPAIN. 


139 


vessels enter this port ; of which half are Spanish, 120 
French, 100 English, and 60 Danes 

In the southern provinces appears Seville, famous till the 
year 1720, as the mart of American trade. The inhabitants 
are computed at 80,000; and the churches and convents 
are opulent and beautiful. The chief manmactures are 
silk, and recently snuffs (a royal monopoly), riot only the 
common Spanish, but rappee, as it was found that the latter 
was smuggled from France. The tobacco employs 220 
manufacturers, who are strictly examined and guarded Se¬ 
ville is esteemed the chief city of Spain. Madrid being 
only a town distinguished by the royal residence. 

Granada has been long celebrated as the paradise of Spain, 
though the southern provinces be in general unhealthy. 
This city stands in a vale bounded by hills, beyond which 
to the south is the Sierra Nevada, so called because the 
mountains are covered with perpetual snow. The inhabi¬ 
tants are supposed to be 80,000 ; the Moorish palace here 
has been already described ; and adjoining is a palace erect¬ 
ed by Charles V. The cathedral and convents contain ex¬ 
cellent pictures by Spanish masters. The municipal go¬ 
vernment is in a corregidor and twenty-four regidors. 
There are beautiful public walks, and the environs are de¬ 
lightful and well cultivated. 

Edifices. The most remarkable edifices of Spain 
are the cathedrals of the several sees, and the churches be¬ 
longing to opulent convents. The houses of the nobility 
are confined, with few exceptions, to the capital and other 
cities, instead of adorning the country at large as in Eng¬ 
land. The palace and monastery of the Escurial have been 
described at great length by many travellers. It is seated 
in a deep recess, at the foot of high mountains ; and was 
built by that bigot Philip II. in the strange form of a grid¬ 
iron, the instrument of the martyrdom of St. Lawrence, 
upon whose anniversary the Spaniards gained the victory 
of St. Quintin. The convent is 740 feet by 580 ; and the 
palace forms the handle of this imaginary gridiron. The 
paintings are excellent and numerous ; and the vault con¬ 
taining the royal tombs is grand and impressive. But the 
palaces of Aranjuez and St. ildefonzo are greater favourites 
with the court. 

Inland Navigation. The inland navigations of 
Spain, though commenced upon united principles of gran- 


140 


SPAIN. 

deur and utility, have been permitted to languish through 
the want of resources, and the slow measures ol the court, 
rather than by any indolence of the superintendants and 
labourers. The great canal of Arragon seems to remain 
in a state of imperfection, though we are told that two 
branches :are completed from the Ebro towards Navarre, 
and have been attended with the most beneficial consequen¬ 
ces. Another canal was to begin at Segovia, or about 40 
miles N. of Madrid, thence to extend to the bay of Biscay. 
This is termed the canal of Castile. The canal of Guada- 
rama was conducted with more spirit, and is probably com¬ 
pleted. It Wits to open near the Escurial and proceed south 
to the Tajo or Tagus. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The manufac¬ 
tures of Spain are considerably checked by the royal mo¬ 
nopolies. 

Many manufactures are however conducted in Spain 
with great spirit and assiduity ; and any failure must not 
be imputed so much to the indolence of the people, as to 
the prejudices of the great, and the inquisitorial power of 
the ecclesiastics, which cramps genius and invention of 
all kinds, and constrains the mind to the same perpetual 
circle. Spain supplies wines, oil, fruits, silk, leather broad 
cloth, and other articles to many European countries ; but 
her chief trade is with her own colonies in America. 1’he 
soil of Spain is exuberant in the production of saltpetre ; 
and the barilla, used in making glass, has been long cele¬ 
brated. 

In the year 1784, the exports from Spain to America 
were thus computed in pounds sterling : 

Spanish produce 1,958,849/. Foreign produce 2,389,229/. 
Total 4,348,078/. 

The duties were computed at 170,800/. 

The imports from America to Spain were, at the same 
time, thus estimated in the same money : 

Money and jewels 9,291,237/. Merchandize 3,343,936/. 

The duty amounted to more than half a million. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of Spain 
has been deservedly praised, as equal if not superior to 
that of any country in u.urope ; in the south the seabreeze, 
beginning about nine in the morning and continuing till 
five in the evening, agreeably diversifies the warmth of the 
summer; and in the northern provinces the Severity of 


SPAIN. 


141 


winter is allayed by the proximity of the ocean, which ge¬ 
nerally supplies gales rather humid than frosty. 

Soil and Agriculture. The Soil is generally 
light, and reposes on beds of gypsum or plaister of Paris, 
itself an excellent manure. “ The common course of hus¬ 
bandry about Barcelona begins with wheat; w hich being 
ripe in June, is immediately succeeded by Indian corn, 
hemp, millet, cabbage, kidney-beans, or lettuce. The se¬ 
cond year these same crops succeed each other as before, 
i he next year they take barley, beans, or vetches ; which, 
coming off the ground before midsummer, are followed 
as in the former years, by other crops, only changing them 
according to the season, so as to have on the same spot 
the greatest possible variety.” The Huerta, or rich vale 
of Alicant, yields a perpetual succession of crops. Barley 
is sown in September, reaped in April, succeeded by maize, 
reaped in September ; and a mixed crop of esculents follow. 
Wheat is sown in November, and reaped in June ; flax in 
September, pulled in May. In the vale of Valencia wheat 
yields from twenty to forty ; barley from eighteen to twenty- 
four ; oats from twenty to thirty; maize one hundred ; rice 
forty. In the more southern provinces the land is almost 
equally fertile ; and the sugar-cane is cultivated with suc¬ 
cess near Granada. Agriculture is greatly impeded in 
Spain by the superior attention paid to the large flocks of 
sheep, which are authorized by a special code, the mesta, 
to travel from one province to another, as the season pre¬ 
sents pasturage in the vales, or on the mountains. The 
Merino sheep, or flocks, thus privileged, are computed at 
5,000,000 ; and one nobleman has sometimes 40,000. The 
fleece is esteemed double in value to that of other sheep ; 
but the checks given to agriculture by such privileges, un¬ 
known to all other countries, are incalculable. 

Rivers. Among the chief rivers of Spain may be 
named the Ebro, which anciently conferred an appellation 
on the country. This noble stream rises in the mountains 
of Asturias, and enters the Mediterranean sea, after having 
run about 380 G. miles. The other rivers running to the 
east are of less importance, as the Guadalavir, the Xucar, 
and the Segura, which enlivens the fertile vales of Murcia. 
Towards the west occurs the Guadalquivir, the ancient 
Baetis, which gave name to the province. This river ori¬ 
ginates in the Sierra Morena, and flow's into the gulph of 


142 


SPAIN. 


Cadiz, after a course of near 300 G. miles. But the chief 
river of Spain and Portugal is the Tajo, or Tagus, which 
rises in the west of Arragon, near Albarracin, in a spring 
called Abrega, and holds a course of about 450 G. miles. 
The Douro springs near the ruins of ancient Numantia ; 
and its course may be computed at 350 G. miles. 

Mountains. The Spanish mountains are arranged 
by nature in several distinct chains. The most northern is 
regarded as a continuation of the Pyrenees, passing on the 
S. of Biscay and the Asturias in Galicia. 

The second chain of Spanish mountains extends from 
near Soria on the N. E. and pursues a S. W. direction to¬ 
wards Portugal. The third is that of Toledo, running near¬ 
ly parallel with the last. These two central chains seem to 
contain great quantities of granite. 

Next towards the S. is the Sierra Morena, or Brown 
Mountains, which are followed by the most southern ridge, 
that of the Sierra Nevada. 

On the east there is a considerable chain, which connects 
the two central ridges, and advances towards the Mediter¬ 
ranean in the north of Valencia. 

A remarkable solitary mountain, not far from Barcelona, 
must not be omitted. At a distance Montserrat appears 
like a sugar-loaf; but on a nearer approach seems jagged 
like a saw, with pyramidical rocks ; it is composed of lime¬ 
stone and gravel, united by calcareous cement; and is of 
such a height that from its summit may be discerned the 
islands of Majorca and Minorca, at the distance of 50 leagues. 
Not far from Montserrat, near the village of Cardona, is a 
hill three miles in circumference, which is one mass of 
rock salt, used in the dry climate of Spain for vases, snuff¬ 
boxes, and trinkets, like our Derbyshire spar. 

The Spanish side of the Pyrenees has not been accurate¬ 
ly examined ; and as the French mineralogists have amply 
illustrated the part belonging to France, an account of 
these mountains has been given in the description of that 
country. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
soil of Spain was anciently very fruitful in corn ; but there 
has lately been some scarcity, by the neglect of tillage, 
through indolence. It produces in many places, almost 
spontaneously, the richest and most delicious fruits that 
are to be found in France and Italy; oranges, lemons, 


SPAIN. 


143 


prunes, citrons, almonds, raisins, and figs. The wines of 
Spain, especially sack and sherry, are in high credit among 
foreigners. In the district of Malaga, alone there are 
14,000 wine presses. The sugar canes thrive in Spain, and 
it yields saffron, honey, and silk in abundance. 

The sheep-walks are for the most part open downs w r ith 
little shelter, except here and there a grove of chesnut 
trees, or evergreen oaks ; the turf differs essentially from 
that of the English sheep-walks in containing very few spe¬ 
cies of grass, being chiefly composed of the smaller papili¬ 
onaceous plants. 

The glory of the Spanish zoology is the horse, which has 
been famous in all ages, probably originating from the barb, 
or beautiful and spirited steed from the north of Africa, the 
immediate offspring of the Arabian. The Spanish mules 
are also excellent, and the ass is here no ignoble animal, 
though not equal to that of Arabia. The breed of sheep 
has been long celebrated as perhaps superior to any in the 
world, for the delicacy of the mutton, and the beauty of 
the fleece. The purity of the air, and aromatic pasture, no 
doubt contribute to both qualities, which it is to be suspected 
would degenerate on transportation. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of Spain was ancient¬ 
ly of more importance than in modern times. Pliny, after 
observing that silver was generally found with galena or 
lead ore, proceeds to state that the fairest of all silver, was 
found in Spain, where the pits begun by Hannibal, lasted to 
his time, being known by the names of their original dis¬ 
coverers. That called Babelo had yielded to Hannibal 300 
weight a day, a mountain being pierced for a mile and a half, 
through which the workmen directed large streams of wa¬ 
ter : so that the plan pursued seems to have been that call¬ 
ed hushing by modern writers. Strabo informs us that the 
province of the Turditani, modern Andalusia, was the most 
productive of precious metals ; and gold, silver, brass, and 
iron, were no where found more abundant, nor of better 
quality ; gold was found in the sands of the rivers and tor¬ 
rents, a known attribute of the Tagus. Polybius informs 
us concerning the mines of silver near Carthagena, which 
occupied a number of workmen, and yielded to the Romans 
25,000 drachms daily. 

At present almost the only silver mines in Spain are 
those of Guadalcanal, in the Sierra Morena. At Almaden 


144 


SPAIN. 


in La Mancha are valuable mines of quicksilver, which are 
chiefly remitted to Spanish America, and employed in re¬ 
fining the more precious metals. Calamine appears near 
Alcavas ; cobalt in the Pyrenees; antimony in La Mancha ; 
copper on the frontiers of Portugal; tin in Galicia; and 
lead is common in many districts. The iron of Spain is 
abundant, and still maintains its high character ; and coals 
are found in the district of Villa Franca, in Catalonia, where 
also occur gold, silver, copper, and lead. Amber and jet 
(in Spanish Azabache) are found together in the territory 
of Beioncia in the Asturias. 


SPANISH ISLES. 


The chief circumjacent islands belonging to Spain are 
Majorca, Minorca, and Eviza. Majorca is about 5 5 Eng¬ 
lish miles in length, by 45 in breadth. The N. W. part 
is hilly : the rest abounds with cultivated land, vineyards, 
orchards, and meadow ; the air is temperate, and the honey 
highly esteemed : there is generally a considerable milita¬ 
ry force in the isle. The capital, seated on a fair bay, is 
an elegant city, and is supposed to contain 10,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. Majorca was reconquered from the Moors by James 
I. king of Arragon in 1229. 

Majorca is generally in too strong a state of defence to 
admit of an easy conquest, but Minorca has been repeated¬ 
ly seized by the English, to whom it presents an advan¬ 
tageous station for the Mediterranean trade. It is about 
30 miles in length, by about 12 of medial breadth. The 
air is moist, and the soil rather barren, being chiefly calca¬ 
reous with lead, and fine marble. The wine is praised ; 
and the inhabitants retain a share of their ancient reputa¬ 
tion as excellent slingers. Cittadella the capital, has a to¬ 
lerable haven, but the population and fortifications are of 
little consequence. Port-Mahon on the S. E. has an ex¬ 
cellent harbour and received its name from Mago the Car¬ 
thaginian general. Eviza is the nearest to Spain, about 15 
miles long and 12 broad. It is remarkable for its fruits, 
and abundance of excellent salt. 


TURKEY IN EUROPE 


THE Turkish empire, once so formidable to Europe, 
has lately sunk before the power of Russia. Turkey in 
Europe is computed to contain 182,560 square miles; an 
extent which exceeds that of Spain, or even France under 
the ancient monarchy. 

Civil Divisions. As European Turkey forms a 
recent sovereignty, the greater part of which was subju¬ 
gated in the fifteenth century, after the fall of Constanti¬ 
nople and of the Byzantine empire, there is no ancient ap¬ 
pellation for its whole extent. It embraces many ancient 
kingdoms and republics, which now only afford a melan¬ 
choly remembrance of classical names and events. 1. Mol¬ 
davia, part of ancient Dacia. 2. Budzac, or Bessarabia, a 
country of the Getse and Peucini. 3. Walachia, a province 
also of the ancient Dacians. 4. Bulgaria which embraces 
nearly the two provinces of Maesia. 5. Romelia, or ancient 
Thracia, Paeonia, Macedonia, and the northern part of the 
classical country of Greece. 6. The Morea, equivalent 
to the ancient Peloponnesus. To the W. of Romelia ex¬ 
tends, 7. Albania ; which includes the kingdom of Epirus, 
Chaonia, and a part of Illyricum. 8. Dalmatia retains its 
ancient appellation : while, 9. Servia, and 10. Bosnia repre¬ 
sent ancient Pannonia. 11. Turkish Croatia, the most 
western province of the empire, also forms a portion of an¬ 
cient Pannonia, with perhaps a small district of Noricum. 

Extent. Turkey in Europe extends about 870 
miles in length, from the northern boundary of Moldavia, 
to Cape Matapan in the Morea. The breadth from the 
river Unna to Constantinople, is about 680 British miles. 
The eastern and southern boundaries are formed by the 




146 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 


Euxine or Black Sea, the sea of Marmora, the Archipelago, 
and the Mediterranean. The utmost northern limit is now 
the river Dniester; but the western often consists of an 
arbitrary line, and is sometimes supplied by rivers or 
mountains. 

Original Population. The original population 
of this empire chiefly sprung from the ancient Scythians 
on the Euxine, the progenitors of the Dacians, Thracians, 
Sac. and even of the Greeks. These were originally blend¬ 
ed, towards the north, with many Sarmatic or Slavonic 
tribes; and on the fall of the Roman empire the latter 
spread more and more towards the south, so that nearly 
one half of the population may now be regarded as Slavo¬ 
nic; but Walachia is supposed to contain many descendants 
of the ancient Roman settlers in Dacia. The extent of the 
Turkish empire has contributed to mingle this original 
population with various Asiatic races, among whom the 
Turks themselves deserve particular mention. That 
branch called the Ottomans, which has proved so destruc¬ 
tive to Europe, derived their name from the calif Othman, 
who reigned in the beginning of the fourteenth century, 
and extended his s ay into the plains of Bithynia, in which 
he conquered Nicomedia and Frusa, and thus approached 
even to the gates of Constantinople, and at length over¬ 
threw the Greek empire. 

Historical Epochs. It would be difficult and 
unsatisfactory minutely to state the historical epochs of this 
extensive dominion, containing so many ancient kingdoms 
and states. It shall therefore be only premised, that after 
the Roman arms had subdued these countries and cities, 
many of which are celebrated in the most ancient pages 
of history, they became in the fifth century an important 
part of the Byzantine empire: and the historical epochs 
most appropriated to the present design will delineate their 
gradual subjugation by the Turks. 

1. The first dawn of Turkish history preceding the 
reign of Othman, A. D. 1299. 

2. In the reign of his successor, Orkan, the Turks take 
Gallipoli, and penetrate into Thrace; which province was 
soon after conquered, and Adrianople was taken A. D. 1360. 
Two years afterwards the sultan Amurath established the 
famous military bands called Janizaries, composed of Chris¬ 
tian slaves educated in Mahometanism from their infancy. 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 


147 


3. The reign of Bajazet, who defeats the Hungarians at 
Nicopoli, in Bulgaria, A. D. 1396. In 1402 the famous 
battle was fought near Ancyra, between Bajazet and Timur, 
which for a period checked the Turkish power : yet in 
1412 the emperor Sigismund was defeated by the sultan 
Mousa, with great slaughter. 

4. The Turks continue to increase their dominion in 
Europe, though they received severe checks from the Hun¬ 
garians under Hunniades, and even from the Albanians 
commanded by the celebrated George Castriota, called by 
the Turks Scanderberg. 

5. Constantinople taken by the Turks on the 29th of 
May 1453. In 1456 happened the siege of Belgrade by 
Mahomet II. Corinth and the Morea became subject to 
the Crescent A. D. 1458. In 1480 Otranto in Italy was 
taken by the Turks, an event which diffused great terror 
throughout Europe. 

6. A considerable accession to the Turkish power took 
place in the conquest of Egypt, A. D. 15 17. In 1522 
Rhodes submits to the Turks: the knights were afterwards 
transferred to Malta. In 1526 the noted battle of Mohatz, 
in which Lewis king of Hungary perished ; and the sultan 
Solimansoon after took Buda. In 1529 he besieges Vienna 
at the head of 250,000 men, but the city being bravely de¬ 
fended by Frederic, prince palatine, the Turks withdrew 
with great loss. In 1552 the Turks seized the Bannat of 
Temeswar ; and took Cyprus from the Venetians in 1571. 

7. In the same year was the famous naval battle of Le- 
panto, which delivered Europe from any apprehension of 
the Turks by sea. They continued however to invade Hun¬ 
gary with various success. But their wars with Persia 
gradually diverted their arms from Europe. In 1 642 the 
sultan Ibrahim took from the Cossacs the town of Azof at 
the mouth of the Don. Towards the middle of this century, 
they seized some Grecian isles, which the naval power of 
the Venetians had enabled them to retain. 

8. Mahomet IV. renews the war against the emperor 
of Germany; and in 1663 the Austrians were defeated in 
Hungary. The isle of Candia is taken in 1669 after a long 
blockade and siege. Wars with Poland. The siege of 
Vienna, 1683, was raised by John Sobieski king of Poland. 
Hungary became the scene of repeated Turkish and Aus¬ 
trian conquests, till 1699, the peace of Carlovitz, by which 


148 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 


the Turks yielded Transylvania to the Austrians, the 
Morea to the Venetians, and Azof to the Russians. 

9, In 1736 a successful war was begun with the Russians 
and Austrians; the Turks by the peace of 1739 resumed 
Belgrade and Orsova, with some parts of Servia and Wala¬ 
chia, formerly ceded to Austria; and Russia is constrained 
to abandon Azof. 

10. The more recent wars of the Russians against the 
Turks, and the subsequent decline of the Ottoman empire. 

Antiquities. The ancient monuments of Eu¬ 
ropean Turkey are well known to exceed in number and 
importance those of any other country. The remains of 
ancient Athens, in particular, formerly the chosen seat of 
the arts, have attracted the attention of many travellers, 
and have been repeatedly described. A venerable monu¬ 
ment of antiquity, the church dedicated to the divine wis¬ 
dom, or vulgarly Sancta Sophia, by the emperor Justinian 
in the sixth century, has been fortunately preserved, by 
being converted into a mosque. The interior is adorned 
with a profusion of marble columns, of various beautiful 
descriptions, the purple Phrygian, the Spartan green, the 
red and white Carian, the African of a saffron colour, and 
many other kinds. 

Religion. The religion of the Turks is the Ma¬ 
hometan ; but of their subjects, in this division of the em¬ 
pire, it is probable that two-thirds are Greek Christians. 
The religion of Mahomet has been recently cleared from 
many erroneous representations ; but its pernicious effects 
are sufficiently visible in the destruction of art and indus¬ 
try, wherever it has made its appearance. 

The mufti, or Mahometan pontiff, presides at Constan¬ 
tinople : but his power has seldom interfered with the civil 
government. Next to him in rank are the moulahs, who, 
though esteemed dignitaries of the church, are in fact ra¬ 
ther doctors of the law, while the Koran is also a code of 
civil observance. From the moulahs, are selected the 
inferior muftis or judges through the empire, and the 
cadilesquiers, or chief justices. 

The next class of divines are the imaums, or parish 
priests, who perform the service of the mosques, while the 
cadis are judges annually appointed to administer justice 
in the towns and villages, being themselves to be regarded 


149 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 

as churchmen, who, like the moulahs, have directed their 
chief attention to the juridical part of the Koran. 

i he Turks have also their monks, styled dervishes, of 
lour various orders and institutions, dedicated by solemn 
vows to religious offices, public prayer, and preaching. 

. ^ Greeks, along with their faith, retain their priests, 
bishops, archbishops, and patriarchs ; but their church is 
in the last state ol degradation, and its dignities openly sold 
by the Turks. 

Government. The sultan is a despotic sovereign ; 
but he is himself: strictly subject to the laws of the Koran 
which, including also the national religion, raise such ob¬ 
structions to his absolute will, that an intelligent traveller 
pronounced many Christian sovereignties more despotic. 
Hence it appears that the power of the monarch is balanced 
by a religious aristocracy, which together with the mu- 
nities of the Janizaries and the insurrections of the provin¬ 
cial pachas, has greatly weakened the sovereign authority. 

i he I urkish laws, as has been already mentioned, are 
contained in the Koran and its commentaries. 

Population. Turkey in Europe has been com¬ 
puted to contain 8,000,000 of inhabitants ; and the extent 
being supposed 1 82,560 square miles, the allotment will be 
43 to the mile square. It is probable that this number ra¬ 
ther exceeds the truth, when it is considered that these 
regions are intersected by many mountainous and barren 
tracts, and that the population even of the best provinces 
impresses travellers with a striking defect. 

Army and Navy. The Turkish army and navy 
may deserve more particular consideration under the head 
of Asiatic Turkey, as the chief sources fall under that divi¬ 
sion. It may here be briefly remarked that there are about 
30 ships of the line ; while the army, can scarcely ex¬ 
ceed 150,000, ill disciplined, and dispirited by successive 
disasters. 

Revenues. The revenues of the whole Turkish 
empire are computed at about 7,000,000 sterling, while 
the usual ex pence does not exceed five. This revenue is 
partly derived from the capitation tax on unbelievers, and 
from the zecchat or customs ; but principally from the tax 
on land, amounting to about six shillings an acre, and 
which is called the jizie. 


N2 


150 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 


Political Importance and Relations. The 
palpable and rapid decline of the Turkish empire has of 
course greatly impaired its political importance. At the 
beginning of the sixteenth century, France, being alarmed 
by the growing power of the house ot Austria, entered into 
an alliance with Turkey, the just subject of murmur among 
the Christian powers. This aiong alliance has been recent¬ 
ly violated by the perfidious rulers of the French republic, 
who invaded Egypt in the time of profound peace, and 
without any offence given by the Porte. Since the peace 
the French have regained their usual ascendancy, and by 
their potent interposition, may no doubt, if they choose, 
considerably modify, and perhaps render null, any future 
conspiracy of Austria and Russia against the European 
dominions of Turkey. The Turks are sensible that a strict 
alliance with Prussia would be of singular advantage to 
them; that power can have little interest in such a treaty, 
but must, on the contrary, rather exult to see the power of 
Russia exerted against Turkey and Asia. Meanwhile the 
Turks have spared no endeavour to secure the friendship 
of several European powers, and have appointed resident 
ambassadors at several courts, who may be regarded as 
heralds of their fall: for in their prosperity they disdained 
to send any envoys, and regarded the ambassadors at the 
Porte as tributary slaves, sent to solicit the protection of 
the sultan. Amidst the defection of several pachas, in the 
east as well as in Europe, it is fortunate for the Ottoman 
empire that the power of Persia is dormant. 

Manners and Customs. The manners anckcus- 
toms of the Turks are distinguished by the peculiarity of 
their religion from those of other European nations. On 
the birth of a child the father himself gives the name, put¬ 
ting at the same time a grain of salt into his mouth. In 
diet the Turks are extremely moderate, and their meals are 
dispatched with great haste. Rice is the favourite food and 
is chiefly dressed in three ways ; the pilau, boiled with mut¬ 
ton or fowl; the lappa, or mere boiled rice; and the tchor- 
ba, a kind of broth of the same vegetable. The meal is 
Usually spread on alow wooden table, and the master of the 
house pronounces a short prayer. The frugal repast is fol¬ 
lowed by fruits and cold water, which are succeeded by hot 
coffee and pipes with tobacco. The dress of their women 
differs little from that of the men, the chief distinction 


151 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 

being the head-dress ; that of the fair sex consisting of a 
bonnet, (instead of a turban) like an inverted basket, formed 
of pasteboard covered with cloth of gold, or other elegant 
mateiials, with a veil extending to the eyebrows, while a 
fine handkerchief conceals the under part of the face. The 
amusements of the Turks partake of their indolent apathy, 
it we except hunting and those of a military description. 
r l o recline on an elegant carpet, or in the hot season by the 
side of a stream, and smoke the delicate tobacco of Syria, 
may be regarded as their chief amusement. With opium 
they procure what they call a kief, or placid intoxication, 
during which the fancy forms a thousand agreeable images, 
but when the dose is too potent these are succeeded by irri¬ 
tation and ferocitv. 

J 

Language and Schools. The Turkish language 
is of far inferior reputation to the Persian or Arabic, being 
a mixture of several dialects, and possessing neither the 
force, elegance, nor purity of those two celebrated oriental 
tongues. The design of establishing a printing press at Con¬ 
stantinople, has been opposed by the copyists, who inferred 
that this at t would deprive them ot their bread. "I here are in 
this capital sc\ ^.i al public libraries, but none are so elegant 
as that founded by the grand vizir Rag hid, which is wholly 
built of marble in the midst of a square court, and is filled 
with books chiefly theological. A librarian constantly at¬ 
tends, and there are convenient seats witli carpets and 
cushions. In the neighbourhood is a school founded by the 
samj vizir, in which about 100 boys are taught to read and 
write. The market for books is extensive, containing many 
shops well supplied with oriental manuscripts. 

The state of education among the Turks may be con¬ 
ceived to be very low, and ignorance is indeed a chief part 
of the national character. The only profession which re¬ 
quires a shadow of learning is that of the law, which, as be¬ 
fore explained, is intimately connected with their theology. 
The celebrated doctors have disciples, who are trained up 
to that department: but there seems nothing that can de¬ 
serve the name of college or university. 

C ities and 1 owns. The chief city of European 
Turkey, and of the Turkish empire, is Constantinople, 
built on the site of the -mcient Byzantium. The advan¬ 
tages of the situation can hardly be exceeded, and the as¬ 
pect horn the sea is peculiarly grand j but on a nearer ap- 


152 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 


proach, the wooden hovels and narrow streets disappoint 
the splendid expectations of the spectator. This capital 
forms an unequal triangle, being about twelve or fourteen 
English miles in circumference, inclosed by walls, and 
on two sides by the sea and the harbour called the Golden 
Horn. The inhabitants are computed at 400,000, including 
the four suburbs, Galata, Pera, Tophana, and Scutari. Of 
these 200,000 are Turks, 100,000 Greeks, and the re¬ 
mainder Jews, Armenians, and Franks. The most cele¬ 
brated edifices are the Seraglio, which comprises a large 
space crowded witli various buildings of mean architecture ; 
and the mosque of Sancta Sophia. The principal entrance 
of the Seraglio is styled Capi, or the Porte, an appellation 
which has passed to the Turkish court. 

Next in dignity and extent is the city of Adrianople, for¬ 
merly the European seat of the Turkish dominion. This 
city, which stands about 140 British miles to the N. W. 
of Constantinople was founded by the emperor Hadrian on 
the site of the ancient Orestias. This second city of 
European Turkey is of a circular form, and at present tin- 
fortified. Many of the houses are respectable, but the 
streets are narrow and indirect. The Seraglio is in a plea¬ 
sant situation, separated from the city by the river Arda, 
and commanding an extensive view of the country, which 
is fertile, and remarkable for excellent vines. Several of 
the mosques are of celebrated splendour, and the commerce 
of the city, by the river, is not inconsiderable. 

The city of Sofia, situated in a low country N. W. from 
Adrianople, is of considerable trade, but meanly built: the 
inhabitants are computed at 70,000. 

Silistria in Bulgaria, on the river Danube, is computed 
to contain 60,000 souls ; and Bucharest, the chief city of 
Walachia, is 'estimated at the same number. 

Belgrade, the capital of Servia, repeatedly disputed be¬ 
tween the Austrians and Turks, is now destitute of fortifi¬ 
cations, but is supposed to retain about 25,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. 

In the more southern provinces the chief city worth no¬ 
tice is Salonica, computed at 60,000, a city of considerable 
commerce, seated on a noble gulph of the Archipelago. 

Edifices. All that deserve a place in this work 
have been already noticed. 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 


153 


Manufactures and Commerce. The native 
manufactures exported from European Turkey are incon¬ 
siderable, being chiefly carpets, and a few other articles; 
but the rude products are far more numerous, as currants, 
figs, saffron, statuary marble from Paros, silk, and drugs ; 
engrossed chiefly by foreigners. 

Climate and Seasons. The extensive regions 
comprised within the limits of European Turkey enjoy, in 
general, a delicious climate, pure air, and regular seasons. 
In Walachia the air is so temperate that vines and melons 
prosper. In the mountainous parts of the more southern 
districts the temperature must partake of the cold, univer¬ 
sal in such elevated regions ; but the products of Macedo¬ 
nia and (Ereece, rice, vines, and olives, shew that the cli¬ 
mate retains its ancient praise. 

Soil and Agriculture. The soil is generally 
fertile, the northern parts producing \\ heat and rich pas¬ 
ture, the middle and southern abundance of rice. But 
agriculture, like every other art and science, is neglected 
by the Turks ; and that soil must be truly fertile, which, 
under their sway, can support its inhabitants. 

Rivers. Among the rivers of European Turkey 
must first be named the Danube, which from Belgrade to 
Orsova divides Servia from the Bannat, a space of near 100 
miles : and afterwards becomes a Turkish stream for more 
than 400, being in some places a mile in breadth, and pre¬ 
senting, if possessed by an industrious people, all the ad¬ 
vantages of a Mediterranean sea. 

Next perhaps in importance, though very inferior, is the 
Maritz, or ancient Elebrus which rising in a chain of moun¬ 
tains anciently called Hsemus, and running towards the E. 
and S. falls into the iEgean sea, after a course of about 
2 50 miles. The same sea at the gulph of Salonica receives 
the Vardari, the ancient Auxias, which rising in Mount 
Scardus, a western branch of the same chain, pursues a 
S. E. course of about 200 miles. 

Mountains. The chains of mountains are nume¬ 
rous and extensive. To the W. of Moldavia and the 
Buckovine runs N. and N. W. for about 200 miles part of 
the grand Carpathian chain, anciently called the Bastarnic 
Alps. 

On the S. of the Danube appears the grand range of the 
Iisemus. This chain is deservedly celebrated by the an- 


154 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 


cients, being of great elevation and extent, as appears from 
the numerous and large rivers which devolve from its sides. 
The chain running to the S. has many classical appella¬ 
tions, as the Acroceraunian, Pindus, &c. The E. and S. of 
Greece are also crowded with small chains of mountains 
and solitary hills, such as Olympus, Ossa, Pelius,and others. 
Mount Athos, a detached summit in the N. E. is of consi¬ 
derable height, but has chiefly attracted observation from 
its singular form, so much resembling that of Montserrat 
in Spain : and from the many monasteries and churches 
on the declivities of its picturesque pinnacle. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
forests of Greece, the Greek islands, and the provinces bor¬ 
dering the Archipelago to the north, consist of the common 
and yew-leaved fir,the larch, the cedar, the ilex, the kermes 
oak, the common oak, the oriental plane-tree, the maple, 
the sycamore, the walnut, the chesnut, and the beech. The 
principal fruit-trees are the olive, considerable forests of 
which, mixed with the broad-leaved myrtle, adorn the 
shores of Crete and Attica ; the orange, the fig, the Vine, 
the pistachia tree, the mastich tree, the mulberry, and the 
pomegranate. Of the shrubs and smaller trees the most 
worthy of notice are the bay-tree, the laurel, two kinds of 
arbutus, the cypress, the oleander, and the caper bush. 

1 he zoology of European Turkey presents few peculia¬ 
rities. The jackal, frequent in Africa and Asia, is not un¬ 
known inthese regions; and among the beasts of burden must 
be classed the camel. 1 he Turkish horses are celebrated for 
spirit and form ; and those of Walachia deserve particular 
praise. The breeds or qualities of their cattle have been little 
explained. I he sheep distinguished by the name of Wala¬ 
chian, have spiral horns of singular elegance ; but the fine¬ 
ness of the fleece would be a more useful distinction. 

Minerals. J he mineralogy ol these provinces is 
also a barren field; for the indolence and ignorance of the 
Turks have generally neglected this branch of opulence ; 
though from the mines in the adjacent regions of Hungary 
and Transylvania, and from the ancient accounts, there 
would be room to expect great mineral treasures. The 
gold mines of Philippi, about 80 miles to the east of Salo- 
nica, in the time of Philip of Macedon, produced yearly 
about 10,000 talents,2,880,000/. sterling; and silver mines 
were found in Attica, and other quarters. 


TURKEY IN EUROPE. 


155 


ISLANDS 

BELONGING TO TURKEY IN EUROPE. 


THE classical islands of ancient Greece have been so re* 
peatedly described, that little more than an enumeration 
may suffice. The largest is that of Crete or Candia, which 
is about 180 British miles in length, by 40 as its greatest 
breadth. A chain of high mountains, called the White 
Mountains, from the snow, pervades a great part of its 
length. The inhabitants are vigorous and robust, and fond 
of archery. This isle abounds with cattle, sheep, swine, 
poultry, and game,all excellent; and the wine is balmy and 
luscious. The siege of Candia by the Turks in the middle 
of the seventeenth century is remarkable in modern histo¬ 
ry, as having continued for 24 years, 1646—1670. This 
island had before flourished under the Venetians. 

Next is Negropont, anciently called Euboea, about 100 
British miles in length by 20 in breadth, a large and im¬ 
portant island, which also belonged to the Venetians to a 
late period. 

The other isles are generally of a diminutive size, and 
were divided by the ancients into separate groups, of which 
the Cyclades were the most memorable; while the Spo- 
rades approached the Asiatic shore. 


HOLLAND. 


v 


THE Seven United Provinces were, in ancient times, 
chiefly possessed by the Batavi, a people highly celebrated 
by Tacitus: reviving an ancient name, the French have 
recently styled them the Batavian Republic. They were 
formerly called the republic of Holland, from the name of 
the chief province ; so called from the German word <- ohl, 
corresponding with the English word hollow, and implying 
a concave or very low country. 

Extent. These provinces extend, from the N. of 
Groningen to Austrian Flanders and Brabant, about 150 
British miles ; and in breadth, from what is called the 
North Sea to the circle of Westphalia, about 100 British 
miles. The number of square miles is computed at 10,000. 

Divisions. The ancient division of Holland was 
into seven provinces, Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Utrecht, 
Groningen, Guelderland, Overyssel. These have recently 
been divided into fifteen departments. 

Original Population. The original population 
appears to have been Celtic : but when the Romans con¬ 
quered this country, the chief inhabitants were the Batavi, 
the most northern people of Belgic Gaul, and incontesti- 
bly a German or Gothic progeny ; who appear to have 
been secure in their marshes and islands, till the Frisians, 
the next adjacent people in the north, in the seventh cen¬ 
tury, extended themselves down to the Scheld. In the 
eighth century the Frisians were subdued by the Franks 
under Charles Martel, but the Frisians and Franks may be 

regarded as mingled in the population with the ancient 
Batavians. 




HOLLAND. 


15Z 

In 1421 the estuary of the Meuse, or Maese, suddenly 
formed a vast lake to the S. E. of Dort, overwhelming 72 
large villages, with 100,000 inhabitants, who perished in 
the deluge. 

Historical Epochs. Among the chief historical 
epochs may be numbered; 

1. The actions of the Batavi in the Roman period, from 
the first mention of that nation by Julius Ucesar. 

2. T. he conquest by the Frisians, and afterwards by the 
Danes, and by the Franks. 

3. The countries watered by the Meuse and the Rhine 
were for a long time divided into small earldoms ; but in 
the year 923 Theodoric or Diedric, brother of FJerman 
duke of Saxony, and of Wickman earl of Ghent, was ap¬ 
pointed count of Holland by Charles the Simple, king of 
France, and the title became hereditary. Zealand and 
Friesland were included in the donation. The county of 
Gelderland in the east, was erected by the emperor Henry 
1^ • i n 1079, and became a duchy in 1339. Utrecht was 
subject to its powerful prelates, who had frequent contests 
with the earls of Holland. 

4. Frequent contests appear between the earls of Hol¬ 
land and those of Flanders, concerning the possession of 
the islands of Zealand. Philipina, daughter of William 
III. earl of Holland, was married to the prince of Wales 
afterwards Edward III. of England, a princess worthy of 
an heroic husband. This king afterwards contested the 
earldom of Holland with Margaret his sister-in-law. Jac- 
quelin the heiress of Holland in 1417 wedded John IV. 
duke of Brabant; but her uncle John of Bavaria, who had 
resigned the bishopric of Liege in the hopes of espousing 
her, contested the succession. A kind of anarchy following, 
Jacquelin went to England, where she married, in 1423, 
Humphry duke of Gloucester; and this marriage being 
annulled by the pope, she wedded in 1432 Borselen stadt- 
holder of Flolland ; and next year was forced to resign her 
states to Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. 

5. Holland, and other large possessions of the house of 
Burgundy, fell by marriage to the house of Austria. 

6. Holland and some inferior provinces revolt from the 
tyranny of Philip II. in 1566 ; ana in 1579 formed the fa¬ 
mous union of Utrecht. 


O 


158 


HOLLAND. 


7. By the end of that century the Dutch had established 
colonies at the Cape of Good Hope, and in the East Indies ; 
and settlements were afterwards gained in S. America* 
During the seventeenth century they rivalled the English 
in the empire of the sea; and greatly exceeded them in 
commercial advantages. Their power began somewhat to 
decline after the obstinate naval conflicts in the time of 
Charles II. In 1672 Louis XIV. invades Holland ; and 
Amsterdam is only saved by opening the sluices. 

8. William stadtholder of Holland ascends the throne of 
England 1688 ; and a stricter intercourse prevails between 
the countries, Holland becoming the grand channel of the 
commerce of England with the continent. 

9. The stadtholderate declared hereditary 1747. The 
war in 1756 opening great connections between Holland and 
France, a French party began to form in the country, 
which opposed the stadtholder, who was supported by the 
English. In 1780 a war arose between Great Britain and 
Holland, which closed in 1784, after exposing to Europe 
the decline and weakness of the United Provinces, still 
farther displayed by the entrance of the duke of Brunswick 
in 1788, who may be said to have subdued them without a 
blow. 

10. The Dutch having joined the coalition against the 
French, their country fell a prey to the invaders, during 
the hard frost of the winter of 1794-5 ; and the stadtholder 
took refuge in England in 1795. Though a separate go¬ 
vernment continue, yet the United Provinces must be con¬ 
sidered as subject to France, which intends to incorporate 
the parts 3. of the Rhine. The Dutch fleet has since been 
nearly annihilated by the English, a fate justly merited by 
ingratitude and cowardice. 

Antiquities. The chief remain of the Roman 
period is the ruined tower near Catwick, about six miles 
N. W. from Leyden, at the ancient mouth of the Rhine. 
In the middle of Leyden, upon an artificial hill, stands a 
round tower, fabled to have been built by Hengist who first 
led the Saxons to England. 

Religion. The Protestant religion, in the Calvin- 
istic form, prevails through the United Provinces. The 
states of Holland, in 1583, proposed that no other form of 
worship should be tolerated; but this resolution was wisely 


HOLLAND. 


i 59 


rejected; and every religion is permitted, on condition that 
it do not oppose the fundamental laws, or teach any doc¬ 
trines subversive of the state: yet employments of any 
consequence can only be filled by Protestants. 

The ecclesiastical persons are considered as divided into 
four ranks, professors at universities, preachers, elders, 
and deacons: and the government of the church is admi¬ 
nistered by consistories, classes, and synods. 

The Roman Catholics are supposed to have 350 churches, 
served by 400 priests, exclusive of some in the conquered 
territory. The chief other sects are the Lutherans, the 
Remonstrants, or Arminians, Anabaptists and Jews, and 
a few quakers. 

Government and Laws. On the conquest of 
Holland by the French in 1795, a convention was called 
to frame a constitution. The plan that was first projected 
being disapproved by the people, another was afterwards 
proposed which was accepted. According to this frame, 
copied from that of France, the government is vested in 
a legislative body, consisting of two chambers, and a direc¬ 
tory. The presidents of the two chambers are changed 
every fortnight, and a part of the legislature and directory 
go out every year. The emperor of France, who does as 
he pleases among his humble allies, seems to be meditating 
another change. 

Justice is administered according to the local customs 
and statutes of each province and city, the ordinances of the 
States-general, and in defect of all these the Roman code. 

1 opulation. The population of the United Pro¬ 
vinces has been recently computed at 2,758,632, and the 
extent of the territory in square miles being supposed 
10,000, there will be 275 for each mile square. The po¬ 
pulation of Holland, the chief province, is calculated at 
980,000. 

Colonies. The Dutch, being, for a considerable 
time, the chief maritime power in Europe, their colonies 
were numerous; they still retain the Spice Islands, Batavia 
in the island of Java, the Cape of Good Hope, Surinam, 
and other considerable establishments. 

Army and Navy. The army was computed at 
about 36,000, but it is now incorporated with that of France. 
The navy which used to consist of forty ships of the line, 
has by the events of the last war almost totally disappeared. 


160 


HOLLAND. 


Revenue. The revenue Was about three millions 
and a half sterling, but was greatly exceeded by the expen¬ 
diture; so that the national debt was computed at about 
130,000.000/. sterling: but 2,800,000/. were annually re¬ 
ceived as the interest of loans to other foreign powers. 

1 olitical Importance, See. The political im¬ 
portance and relations of the United Provinces are at pre¬ 
sent completely immerged in those of France ; she is forced 
to contribute to her own annihilation, and the aggrandize¬ 
ment of her enemies. 

Manners and Customs. A stranger visiting 
Holland is surprised at the extreme cleanliness observable 
in the houses and streets ; even hamlets inhabited by poor 
fishermen displaying a neatness and freshness, which forms 
a striking contrast with the squalid appearance of the Ger¬ 
man villages. The air being always moist, and commonly 
cold, the Dutch dress is calculated for warmth and not for 
elegance. The people are of a phlegmatic temperament; 
and their courage at sea is rather obstinacy than ardour. 
A late amiable traveller observes, that u the infatuation of 
loving money, not as a mean but as an end, is paramount 
in the mind of almost every Dutchman, whatever may be 
his other disposition and qualities; the addiction to it is 
fervent, inveterate, invincible, and universal from youth to 
the feeblest old age.” 

1 heir dress is little affected by fashion. The opulent 
merchants delight in their villas, and gardens, in which 
perhaps one tulip root might cost 50 guineas. In the winter, 
skating is a favourite amusement, and the canals are 
crowded with all ranks, irom the senator to the milk-maid 
with her pail, and the peasant with his eggs. They possess 
some valuable collections of paintings and prints, which 
also have become an article of commerce and avarice. 

Language. The Dutch language is a dialect of 
the German. 

Public Schools. The mode of education pursued 
in these provinces seems to have been greatly inferior to 
that used in Scotland, a country enjoying an ecclesiastic 
government somewhat similar. The Dutch youths being 
chiefly allotted to a seafaring life, there was not indeed op¬ 
portunity for numerous parochial schools, and consequent 
diffusion of common knowledge. The most celebrated 
Latin schools were at Rotterdam, Breda, Middleburg, 


HOLLAND. 


161 


Groningen, 8cc. The universities are five ; Leyden, Utrecht, 
Harderwyck, Franecker, and Groningen ; with two inferior 
colleges at Amsterdam and Deventer. There is an aca¬ 
demy of sciences at Haarlem. 

Cities and Towns. Amsterdam, the chief city 
of Holland, is upon the small river Amstel. The haven is 
not distinguished by natural advantages, but has been im¬ 
proved and secured by art: and the wide forest of masts 
impressed every traveller with amazement. The popula¬ 
tion is computed at about 212,000. The streets are general¬ 
ly narrow, and the canals feculent. The houses have the 
common air of neatness peculiar to those of the Dutch. 
The chief edifices are the state-house, founded on piles at 
an immense expence ; the exchange, and the post-office ; 
but some streets along the chief canals display houses of 
uniform grandeur. Some agreeable walks occur in the 
interior of the city ; but the environs are chiefly visited by 
water; yet to the S. there is an agreeable road to Ouder- 
kirk through pleasant gardens and groves. 

Leyden is esteemed the next city in population, contain¬ 
ing about -0,000 souls. It is the Lugdunum Batavorum 
of antiquity, and is distinguished by its university. Here 
the ancient Rhine almost expires in a number of small 
channels, which are passed by so many bridges that the 
number has been computed at more than one hundred. 
The meadows and gardens around Leyden are remarkably 
productive, and there is a daily intercourse, by canals, with 
the other chief cities and provinces. The fair is still much 
frequented ; but the university has declined. 

Next is Rotterdam, with a population of about 48,000 
people. There is a noble quay, with houses as handsome 
as any in the squares of London ; and the great length of 
the streets is characteristic of Dutch cities, and even towns ; 
yet they are generally narrow, and the foot pavement is 
only distinguished by a clean line of bricks. In the mar¬ 
ket place stands the well-known statue of Erasmus. 

Haarlem is computed to contain 40,000 souls ; and, like 
Leyden, is fortified by old brick walls. The great church 
is esteemed the largest in the province of Holland ; but the 
celebrated organ is more remarkable for power than 
sweetness. 

The Hague is only esteemed a village, though the in¬ 
habitants be computed at 36,000. The court or pa- 

02 


162 


HOLLAND. 


lace, contains several chambers allotted to the different 
branches of government, besides the apartments of the 
Stadtholder. The states-general meet in a room which 
contained twenty-six chairs, for the usual number of the 
members. The cabinet of natural history has been carried 
to France, and probably the most curious books and pic¬ 
tures. The Hague is distinguished by its pleasant situation 
and tranquil grandeur. 

Inland Navigation. To enumerate the canals 
of the United Provinces would be infinite, for they equal 
the roads in other countries. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The chief ma¬ 
nufactures of Holland are linens ; pottery, and painted tiles, 
especially at Delft; leather, wax, snuff, sugar, starch, pa¬ 
per, besides some of woollen, cotton, and silk. But the 
most precious branch of commerce consisted in spices and 
drugs, brought from the settlements in the East Indies. 
The fishery in the Northern Seas, and even on their own 
and the English coasts, was also an object of great com¬ 
mercial importance. Latterly perhaps the chief advan¬ 
tage was derived from Holland, being the grand deposit of 
commerce between Great Britain and the continent, parti¬ 
cularly Germany and France. The inland trade with Ger¬ 
many, by the canals and the Rhine, is almost the only 
branch which has escaped the ravages of war. Of this the 
most remarkable feature consists in the vast floats of tim¬ 
ber brought down the Rhine. The length of these rafts 
is from 700 to 1000 feet, the breadth from 50 to 90 ; and 
500 labourers direct the floating island, which is crowned 
with a village of timber huts for their reception. 

Climate and Seasons. Humidity and cold are 
the chief characteristics of the climate of the United Pro¬ 
vinces. The general face of the country is that of a large 
marsh which has been drained ; the canals, and even the 
sea, looking pale and discoloured by mud. The wdiole 
country may be said to display an intimate combination of 
land and water ; and the few elevations commonly consist 
of barren sand. 

Soil and Agriculture. The agriculture of 
such provinces cannot be expected to be considerable, the 
land being mostly under pasturage, except a few crops of 
madder, and tobacco, which are cultivated with great pre¬ 
dilection. The pasturages in the north of Holland, espe- 


HOLLAND. 


163 


cially those of Bemster, and in Friesland, supply such 
quantities of excellent butter, as to become a staple article 
oi commeice. Fhe cows seem to have been originally 
fiom holstein, and the utmost attention is paid to warmth 
and cleanliness, so that even in summer the animals appear 
in the meadows clothed with ludicrous care. 

Rivers. The chief rivers of the United Provinces 
ai e the Rhine and the Meuse ; the latter here receiving at 
its estuary the Aa, joined with the Domel from the S. and 
from the N. that great outlet of the Rhine called the Waal: 
and near 40 British miles farther to the W. the second 
grand outlet of the Rhine, called the Leek, joins the Meuse, 
after which but a small stream passes by Leyden to the 
German ocean. The principal river falling into the Zuy- 
der Zee is the Issel, which rises not far to the S. W. of 
Munster, and after receiving the canal of Brusus near 
Duisberg becomes a considerable stream. On the N. of 
this is the small estuary of Wecht, which rises to the N. 
of Munster. The rivers of Friesland and Groningen are 
so diminutive that they are mostly lost in the numerous 
canals before they join the sea. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
quantity ol grain produced here is not sufficient for home 
consumption ; but by draining their bogs, the Butch have 
made excellent meadows, which fatten lean cattle from 
Germany and Denmark, to a great size; and they make 
prodigious quantities of excellent butter and cheese. Their 
country produces turf, tobacco, some fruit and iron. They 
have a good breed of sheep that is highly valued, and their 
horses and horned cattle are of a larger size than any in 
Europe. Their shores abound with fish, particularly tur¬ 
bot and soals —But their chief fishery is on the coast of 
England and Scotland. 


DENMARK. 


THE name of Denmark, implying the marches, boun¬ 
daries, or territories, of the Danes, is derived from the 
inhabitants who are first mentioned by this appellation in 
the sixth century, when we begin to acquire a faint idea of 
Scandinavia from the history of Jornandes. Norway, an¬ 
ciently Norrick, or the Northern kingdom, affords a palpa¬ 
ble and precise derivation. 

Extent. From the river Elbe, in the south, to the 
northern extremity of Danish Lapland, and the wild en¬ 
virons of the river Tana, may be computed, after excluding 
the entrance of the Baltic, an extent of not less than 1400 
British miles in length, by a medial breadth of only 150. 
Of this great length, Denmark occupies about 260 miles, 
while the remainder belongs to Norway. To the south the 
Danish province of Holstein borders on the wide territories 
of Germany ; on the east, west, and north, Denmark is 
surrounded by the sea. The eastern limits of Norway are 
chiefly indicated by a long chain of mountains, passing be¬ 
tween that country and Sweden. 

Divisions The territories subject to the crown of 
Denmark are divided into thirteen provinces, viz : 

Five in Denmark proper, seven in Norway, and one in 
the Isles of Ferroe. 

Original opulation. The original population 
of Denmark appears to have consisted of Cimbn or Nor¬ 
thern Celts, the ancestors of the Welch ; and who in par¬ 
ticular held the Cimbric Chersonese, or modern Jutland 
andSleswic. On the progress of the Goths from the N. 
and E. the Cimbri were expelled, and their country was 
possessed by seven Gothic tribes, among which were the 




DENMARK. 


165 


Angli, who afterwards invaded and gave appellation to 
England. The original possessors of Norway appear to 
iiave been the Fins and the Laps, who were driven to the 
northern extremities by the Gothic invasion, allegorically 
said to have been conducted by Odin the God of war. i he 
population of Norway has since continued pure and unmix¬ 
ed by foreign conquests. 

The chief historical epochs of Denmark are the follow¬ 
ing ; those of Norway preceding the union, are too obscure 
to be noticed. 

Historical Epochs. 1 . The most ancient po¬ 
pulation of the continental part of Denmark by the Cimbri. 

2. The conquest by the Goths, who appear to have pro¬ 
ceeded from Scandinavia into the isles and Jutland, as the 
dialect differs greatly from the German Gothic, while it is 
a sister of the Swedish and Norwegian. 

3. The Roman and Francic accounts of Denmark, from 
the time of Pliny and Tacitus to that of Charlemagne. 

4. The fabulous and traditional history of Denmark, 
which extends from about the ( year of Christ 500 to the 
reign of Heriold, mentioned by the Francic historians in 
the time of Charlemagne. 

5. The conquest of Denmark by Olaf II. king of Swe¬ 
den, about the year 900. 

6. The more certain history commences with Gurm, 
or Gormo, A. D. 920. Gormo is succeeded by his son 
Harald Blaatand 945, who is followed by his son Swein 
985, well known by his invasion of England, where he in 
some measure usurped the sovereignty, and died A. D. 
1014. 

7. The reign of Canute the Great, king of Denmark, 
England and Norway. The conversion of Denmark to 
Christianity had commenced in the beginning of the ninth 
century ; but Christianity was far from being universal there 
till the reign of Canute the Great, when it was followed by 
its universal consequences, the cessation of piracy and ra¬ 
pine, and the diffusion of industry and civilization. 

8. The reign of Waldemar, surnamed the Great, A. D. 
1157, who defeats the Wends, or Slavonic inhabitants of 
the southern shores of the Baltic, in many battles, and sub¬ 
dues the isle of Rugen. Plence followed slowly the conver¬ 
sion of Pomerania, and of the countries on the east. Wal¬ 
demar is regarded as the parent of the Danish laws. 


166 


DENMARK. 


9. The marriage of Hakon VI. king of Norway, with 
Margaret daughter of Waldemar HI. king of Denmark, 
A. D. 1363, produced the memorable union of the three 
crowns of the north. On the death of her young son, Mar¬ 
garet ascended the throne of Denmark and Norway in 
1387, and that of Sweden in 1389. Her husband, Eric of 
Pomerania, reigned about 26 years after her death ; and 
was followed by Christopher of Bavaria, who removed the 
royal residence from Roskild to Copenhagen. 

10. The accession of the house of Oldenburg, in the 
person of Christiern I. A. D. 1448. The repeated revolts 
of weden were suppressed by his successor John, who was 
crowned at Stockholm, in 1497. 

11. The tyrannical and unhappy reign of Christiern IT. 
when Sweden was emancipated by the efforts of Gustaf 
Wase. 

12. The abolition of the Roman Catholic religion by 
Christiern III. 1537 ; but the Lutheran had been already 
introduced in 1526. 

13. The reigns of Christiern IV. and his successor Fre¬ 
deric III. who was constrained to sign a treaty in March, 
1660, by which he abandoned to Sweden the valuable pro¬ 
vince of Scone, and other parts in the south of Scandinavia, 
which had long remained in the possession of the Danes, 
together with the fertile island of Rugen. 

14. The memorable revolution of the 23d October, 1660, 
by which the crown was declared absolute and hereditary. 
The subsequent events have been little memorable. 

Antiquities. The ancient monuments of Den¬ 
mark and Norway are chiefly what are called Runic ; though 
it be not clear at what period the use of the Runic charac¬ 
ters extended so far to the north. Circles of upright stones 
are common in all the Danish dominions ; in Iceland their 
origin is perfectly ascertained, as some were erected even 
in recent times ol the Icelandic republic, being called 
Dombring, or Circles of Judgment. Monuments also 
occur of the other forms imagined by our antiquaries to be 
Druidic 

Religion. [he religion of Denmark and Nor¬ 
way is the Lutheran. There is no archbishop ; but the 
bishopricks are twelve, six in Denmark, four in Norway, 
and two in Iceland. The chief see is that of Zealand, which 
>ields about 1000/. a year; the other clerical orders are 


DENMARK. 


L67 


provosts, or archdeacons, parish priests, and chaplains. 
The parochial clergy are maintained by their glebes, tithes, 
and surplice fees; but in Jutland some of the livings do not 
exceed 20/. a year. 

Government. Since the revolution of 1660, the 
Danish government has been an absolute monarchy. That 
revolution was produced by the obstinacy of the nobility, 
and consequent enmity of the clergy and burgesses, who 
perceived no other means of humbling their adversaries. 

The Danish government has however been generally 
conducted with mildness and moderation ; and their regal 
acts pass through many councils who carefully observe the 
legal forms. The laws are chiefly comprised in the code of 
Christiern V. who reigned in the end of the seventeenth 
century. 

Population. The population of the Danish do¬ 
minions is computed at two millions and a half; though 
there seem little room to infer that it yields to that of Swe¬ 
den. If we suppose the square contents to be about 180,000 
miles, there will only be 12 inhabitants to the square mile. 
Norway is not supposed to contain more than 700,000 souls, 
nor Iceland above 50,000, the former only yielding six, the 
latter one, to the square mile. 

Army, &c. The army of this kingdom is comput¬ 
ed at 70,000 men, of which Denmark supplies about 40,000, 
and Norway the remainder. The navy, prior to the late 
engagement with the English oft' Copenhagen, consisted ol 
33 ships of the line, manned by about 11,000 seamen, and 
5000 marines. 

Revenue. The annual revenue is computed at about 
one million and a half sterling, being superior to that of 
Sweden. Denmark contributes 543,554/. Norway 290,000/. 
Sleswic and Holstein 300,000/. the W est India islands 
262,000/. the toll levied upon ships passing the Sound 
122,554/. Altona 3,150/. The expencesof the state amount 
annually to about 1,050,000/. and it is burthened with a 
debt of 2,600,000/. 

Political Importance and Relations. A 
timid policy has long united this monarchy in alliance with 
Russia, as a mean of security against Sweden; but more 
wisdom would appear in a firm alliance with Sweden and 
Prussia against the exorbitant power of the Russian em¬ 
pire. 


168 


DENMARK. 


Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the superior Danes differ little from those of the 
same classes in other parts of Europe. The peasantry 
continue in a state of vassalage, except those of the crown. 
They are of course idle, dirty, and dispirited : on the con¬ 
trary, the Norwegian peasants are spirited, frank, open, and 
undaunted, yet not insolent; their usual dress is of a 
stone colour, with red button holes, and white metal but¬ 
tons ; and the women often appear only dressed in a petti¬ 
coat and shift, with a close collar round their throat, and a 
black sash. Their usual bread, like that of the Scottish 
peasantry, consists of flat cakes of oatmeal; which in times 
of great scarcity is mingled with the white inner rind of 
trees. 

Laplanders are of a small size, generally about four feet, 
with short black hair, narrow dark eyes, large heads and 
high cheek bones, a wide mouth and thick lips, and a 
swarthy complexion. Towards the shore they build huts; 
and on the mountains use tents of a flatly conic form, and 
divided by several rude partitions into apartments for them¬ 
selves, their servants, and cattle. The sun is here absent 
for seven weeks ; yet from ten in the forenoon to one in the 
afternoon there is a kind of twilight even in the shortest 
days, so that one may read without a candle ; but the stars 
are very visible, and the moon, when apparent shines all 
day. The rivers supply salmon, and other fish, a consi¬ 
derable part of the Laplandic food ; but at a festival are 
seen mutton, or rein deer, and mead. The men wear 
conic red caps, lined with fur, and a kind of robe of cloth 
or skin ; the poor sometimes using that of salmon, which 
appears like a white shagreen. T ill recent times they were 
immersed in paganism, regarding particular mountains and 
rocks as holy. 

Language. If we except the Laponic, the lan¬ 
guages spoken in the Danish dominions are all sister dia¬ 
lects of the Gothic. The Icelandic is the most ancient and ve¬ 
nerable, being esteemed the most pure dialect of the Gothic.' 

Fducation. The silence of travellers and geo¬ 
graphers concerning the modes of education pursued in 
different countries has been more than once regretted in 
this v ork ; but the materials are not equally deficient con¬ 
cerning Denmark. Each parish is provided with two or 
three schools, where children are taught to read and write 


DENMARK. 


169 


their native tongue, and the principles of arithmetic: the 
schoolmasters are allowed about 12/. a year, with a house, 
and some other advantages. There are besides many 
Latin schools, maintained at the royal expence ; 16 in Idol- 
stein ; 11 in Sleswic; 19 in Denmark proper, or Jutland, 
and the isles : but only four in the wide extent of Norway ; 
and two in Iceland. r I here is also a special seminary for 
the Laplanders at Bergen ; and at Soroe, Odensee, and 
Alton a, there are superior academies of education. 

The universities are at Copenhagen and Kiel. The 
royal academy of sciences was founded in 1742, but has 
been more distinguished in national antiquities, than na¬ 
tural history. In 1746 was founded the society for the 
improvement of northern history, also styled the royal so¬ 
ciety of Icelandic literature. There is another respectable 
institution at Drontheim, styled the royal society of sci¬ 
ences. These foundations confer honour on the Danish 
government; and will doubtless contribute to diffuse science, 
and inspire emulation. 

Cities and ’ owns. Copenhagen, the chief city 
of Denmark, stands on the eastern shore of the large and 
fertile island ol Zealand, about 25 British miles to the south 
of the noted sound, where the vessels that visit the Baltic 
pay a small tribute to Denmark. It is the best built city 
in the north; for, though Petersburg present more superb 
edifices, yet Copenhagen is more uniform ; the houses be¬ 
ing mostly of brick, but a few of freestone from Germany. 
The streets are rather narrow but are well paved. It is 
regularly fortified, the circumference being between four 
and five miles, and the inhabitants about 90,000. 1 he har¬ 
bour is spacious and convenient, having on the south the 
isle of Atnak, peopled by the descendants of a colony from 
East Friesland, to whom the island was granted by Chris- 
tiern II. to supply his queen with vegetables, cheese and 
butter, a destination still retained. 

Next in dignity, though not in population, is Bergen, the 
capital of Norway, founded in the year 1070. it is seated 
in the centre of a valley, forming a semicircle round a 
small gulph of the sea. On the land side it is defended 
by mountains; and on the other by several fortifications. 
All tne churches and many of the houses are of stone. The 
castle and cathedral are remarkable edifices. I he chief 

P 


170 


DENMARK. 


trade is in fish, hides, timber, &c. The population is 
computed at 19,000. 

The third city of Denmark, and indeed the second in 
population, is Altona on the Elbe, within a gun-shot of 
Hamburgh, originally a village ot the parish of Ottensen ; 
but in 1640 it became subject to Denmark, and was consti¬ 
tuted a city in 1664. In 1713 it was almost entirely re¬ 
duced to ashes by the Swedes; but its commerce was af¬ 
terwards so much fostered by the Danish sovereigns, as a 
diminutive rival of Hamburgh, that it is computed to con¬ 
tain 25,000 inhabitants. 

Edifices. The chief public edifices are in the cities. 
The castle and palaces of Cronberg, and the two other royal 
villas in Zealand, do not merit a particular description, the 
buildings and gardens being generally in an antiquated taste. 

Inland Navigation. The chief inland navigation 
of Denmark is the canal of Kiel, so called from a consi¬ 
derable town in the north of Holstein. This canal is in¬ 
tended to unite the Baltic with the river Eydar, which 
flows into the German sea. The extent of this important 
canal is about 20 British miles and a half; the breadth 100 
feet at top and 54 at bottom; the least depth is about 10 
feet, so as to admit vessels of about 120 tons. It was be¬ 
gun in July 1777, and was finished in 1785. 

Manufactures and Commerce. At Copenha¬ 
gen are what are called the royal manufactures, in which 
Mr. Marshall says that 400 looms" were employed, from the 
finest woollen cloth used at court, to that worn by the sol¬ 
diery. Other manufactures have also been recently en¬ 
couraged by the crown, which has paid more attention to 
commerce and agriculture than to the arts and sciences. 
The chief exports of Denmark consist of native products. 
Jutland with the isles, Sleswic, and Holstein, generally ex¬ 
port corn to a considerable amount; and the horses and cat¬ 
tle of the latter province furnish a supply to Holland. The 
chief products of Norway are wood, hides (chiefly those of 
the goat), with silver, copper, and iron; while Iceland 
exports dried fish, falcons and hawks, and eider-down. 
The commerce of this kingdom has been greatly improved 
since the acquisition of Altona, and the opening of the Kiel 
navigation. The colonies in the East and West Indies also 
supply some resources. 


DENMARK. 


171 


Climate and Seasons. The kingdom of Den¬ 
mark proper, may be considered as possessing a humid and 
rather temperate climate. Yet the winter is occasionally 
of extreme severity, and the sea is impeded with ice. Nor¬ 
way, chiefly extending along the west side of the Scandina¬ 
vian Alps, exposed to the vapours from the Atlantic, is not 
so cold a region as might be conceived. Finmark indeed 
feels the utmost rigour of winter; while in Iceland, on the 
contrary, that season is unexpectedly moderate, so as ge¬ 
nerally to permit the natives to cut turf even in January. 

Soil and Agriculture. In Holstein and the 
south of Jutland the agriculture may be compared with 
that of England; the fields are divided by hedges and 
ditches in excellent order, and sown with corn and turnips. 
Farther to the north, cultivation is less perfect. In Nor¬ 
way the portion of arable ground is scanty, and far from 
sufficient to supply the consumption. That mountainous 
country is however abundant in pasture and cattle : which, 
as in Swisserland, are driven to the heights in summer; 
and a patriotic society has so much encouraged agriculture, 
that within these fifty years estates have risen near one 
third in value. 

Rivers. In the kingdom of Denmark proper, the 
rivulets are numerous; but scarcely a river of any note 
except the Eydar, the ancient boundary between DenmnrU 

an iP el ™e^ V iTver of Norway is the Glom or Glomen, 
which is not navigable, but full of cataracts and shoals; yet 
about 50,000 trees are annually floated upon it to r rederick- 
stadt. It springs from the lake of Oresund on the north 
of the Fcemund, and runs nearly south about 300 British 

miles. , . . . 

In Finmark the most considerable river is the 1 ana, 

which is followed by the Alien; both rising in the moun¬ 
tains to the north of Swedish Lapland, and flowing into the 


Arctic ocean. ^ . 

Lakes. The lakes in the Danish dominions are 

numerous, the most extensive being in the south of Nor- 
way. 


vv The lake of Mioss is about 60 British miles in 
length, but the breadth is in general little considerable, 
except towards the centre, where it is from 12 to 18 miles: 
it contains an island about ten miles m circumference, fer¬ 
tile in corn, pasture, and wood. Next is the lake of Rands 


172 


DENMARK. 


or Rands-Sion, which is near fifty miles in length, but nob 
more than two in breadth. The lake of T. yri is a beautiful 
piece of water, about fifteen miles in length and breadth, 
diversified with many bays and creeks: the environs are 
delightful, consisting of corn-fields, fertile meadows, and 
hanging forests, backed by lofty mountains towering above 


each other. 

Mountains. Norway is almost wholly an Alpine 
country ; the southern part of the Scandinavian chain run¬ 
ning nearly N. and S. and terminating at the province of 
Romsdal, is called Langfiall, or the Long Mountains. 
Hence the part called Dofrafiall extends towards the 
cast, ending above the lake of Aursund or Oresund ; where 
it again proceeds almost due north. Here also a consider¬ 
able branch proceeds by Swucku, See. towards Sweden. 
The third part of the range, from the north of Oresund 
and the vicinity of the copper mines of Roras, is called the 
chain of Kolen, extending between Norway and Swedish 
Lapland, and afterwards bending in the form of a horse¬ 
shoe, on the south of Finmark. 

The height of these mountains has been extremely ex¬ 
aggerated. The following have been measured to their 
bases, or to the next adjacent waters ; Areskutan, a soli¬ 
tary mountain of Jaemtland, about four or five Swedish 
miles from the highest Alps which separate Norway and 
Sweden, is said to be 6162 English feet above the nearest 

above Lake Famund, and 'that Lke^slhoSAp'S a K> c 4 ? 5 J! 
3000 above the sea; and finally Sylfixllen, on the borders 
ol Jjemtland, is 3132 feet perpendicular from the heieht to 
the base. ° 


Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
botany of Denmark proper does not materially differ from 
that of the northern provinces of the German empire, 
which has already been slightly sketched in the account of 
■.lussia. That of Norway will be incorporated with the 

vegetables of the rest of Scandinavia, under the article 
Sweden. 

r | hei ’e 1S a great diversity in the animal productions 
j he Danish dominions. The horses of Norway and 
Ice and are as remarkable for diminutive size, as those of 
3 ein are f ° r the contrary quality. Among the more 
peculiar animals may be first named the rein-deer, com- 


DENMARK. 


173 


mon in Finmark and throughout Lapland. This animal 
resembles a stag, but is stronger ; and the deep division of 
his hoofs is adapted to tread on the snow, being suited by 
Providence to a cold climate, as the camel is to the hot 
desert. The elk is a more southern animal, and sometimes 
appears in Norway, which is infested by the bear, the wolf, 
and the lynx. The lemming, or Norwegian mouse, pro¬ 
ceeds from the ridge of Kolen, and sometimes spreads de¬ 
solation like the locust. These animals appear in vast 
numbers, proceeding from the mountains towards the sea, 
and devouring every product of the soil: it would seem 
that alter consuming every thing eatable in their course, 
they at last devour each other. This singular creature is 
of a reddish colour, and about five inches in length. Nor¬ 
way also boasts of eagles, and its falcons are reckoned the 
boldest and most spirited of any in Europe. The salmon 
supplies a considerable part of the Laplander’s food ; and 
vast numbers are transported on rein-deer from the shores 
of the Tana. Ha res are also common in that remote re¬ 
gion, as well as the bear, lynx, and fox; nor are the glutton 
and the beaver unknown. About Roras in Norway the 
latter animal is sometimes found white. 

Minerals. About the year 1645 some gold ore 
was found near Arindal, of which ducats were struck. 
The mines of Kongsberg, about 40 British miles to the S. 
W. of Christiana, having been long reputed the richest in 
Europe ; and one mass of native silver in the royal cabinet 
weighs 409 marks, being worth 3000 rix-dollars, or 600/. 
The veins of metal are from half an inch to more than two 
feet in thickness. These mines were discovered in 1623 
by two peasants. They are worked by 36 shafts, and used 
to yield about 70,000/. annually, when 4000 men were 
employed; but recently 2400 have removed to the cobalt 
mines at Fossum, 20 miles to the north, and it is supposed 
that the produce barely defrays the expence. 

The important copper mines of Roras, about 68 British 
miles S. E. of Brontheim, were discovered in 1644. The 
veins are from six inches to six ells in thickness ; and the 
ore of a pale yellow. In general the mines of Roras are 
very productive, and a source of considerable revenue. 

The mines of cobalt at Fossum are a recent discovery. 
This metal yields smalt, or powder blue, used in painting 
pottery and porcelain, and in colouring starch; and the 

P 2 


174 


DENMARK. 


■mine is supposed to produce a clear annual revenue to the 
crown of about 15.,0004 

But the iron mines of Norway are esteemed the most 
profitable. Lead appears in the vicinity of Kongsberg; 
and there are alum works near Christiana. 

Natural Curiosities. The northern provinces 
of Norway afford many singular features. The Malstrom, 
is a remarkable whirlpool off the shore of Norland, which 
will involve boats, and even ships; nay the bellowing strug¬ 
gles of the whale have not always redeemed him from the 
danger; the bottom is full of craggy spires, and the noise 
truly tremendous. The volcanoes of Iceland may also be 
classed among the grandest features of nature. Among 
these, Mount Hekla is the most remarkable ; it rises to the 
height of about 5000 feet above the sea. The summit is 
covered with snow, except some spots where the heat pre¬ 
dominates. The craters are numerous, but the eruptions 
rare; there having only been ten from the year 1104 to 
1693, after which it remained quiet till 1765, when it emit¬ 
ted flames and lava. The boiling springs of Iceland pre¬ 
sent a singular phenomenon ; that of Geyser to the north of 
Skallholdt is the most remarkable, rising from an aperture 
19 feet in diameter, and springing at intervals to the height 
of 50 or even 90 feet. 


DANISH ISLANDS. 

1 HE prime seat of the Danish monarchy having ever 
been in the isles of Zeeland, Funen, Laland, Faister, and 
the others of that group, they have been considered in the 
general description of the monarchy. In the east, the far¬ 
thest isle belonging to Denmark is that of Bornholm, a 
small but fertile spot. 

Off the west coast of Jutland are the isles of Nordstrand, 
Fora, By It, Rom, Fanoe, and others. 

The Norwegian coast presents one continued series of 
small and unimportant islands, most of them indeed unin¬ 
habited. 

The Norwegian isles are in general mountainous or crag¬ 
gy, like the corresponding coast, with precipitous rocks 
and a sea from 100 to 300 fathoms deep washing their 

bases. 


DENMARK. 


175 


The Ferroe isles are an appanage of the Danish crown : 
they are seventeen in number, and not unfertile, producing 
some barley, and abundant pasturage for sheep. Small 
junipers, stunted willows, and birches, alone bear a dimi¬ 
nutive image of trees. They were discovered prior to Ice¬ 
land, in the ninth century ; and export feathers, eider-down, 
caps, stockings, salted mutton, and tallow. The inhabitants 
do not exceed 5000. 

The large and celebrated island of Iceland may be re¬ 
garded as 260 British miles in length from the most west¬ 
ern cape to the most eastern,-and about 200 in breadth from 
N. to S. but the inhabitants do not exceed 50,000. The 
government was an aristocratic republic for about 387 
years, till in 1261 it submitted to Norway. In’the mid¬ 
dle of the fourteenth century this isle was greatly depopu¬ 
lated by a pestilence called the Elack Death. A volcanic 
island recently arose to the south of Iceland, but afterwards 
disappeared. From Iceland a colony passed to Greenland, 
a short course of about 200 miles; but the Danish colony 
in Greenland has been long explored in vain, the eastern 
coast on which it was settled being since blocked up by 
ice. 


SWEDEN. 


SWEDEN, in the native lan guage Suitheod, and more 
modernly Svveirige, appears to be a very ancient appella¬ 
tion, and is said, by the northern antiquaries, to imply a 
country whose woods had been burned or destroyed. 

Extent. The kingdom of Sweden is of very con¬ 
siderable extent, being from the most southern promon¬ 
tory of Scone to the northern extremity of Swedish Lap- 
land, not less than 1150 British miles in length, and in 
breadth, from the Norwegian Alps to the limits of Russia, 
about 600. The contents in square miles have been com¬ 
puted at 208,912 ; and the inhabitants being some years 
ago supposed 2,977,345, there will be 14 to the square 
mile, including Swedish Pomerania, computed at 1440 
square miles, and 103 345 inhabitants. 

Divisions. The provinces of the Swedish mo¬ 
narchy are 28 in number, and may be arranged in the fol¬ 
lowing manner: 

Five in Sweden proper : three in W. E. and S. Gothland ; 
six in West Norland; one;in West Bothnia; six in Swedish 
Lapland ; two in Last Bothnia ; four in Finland ; one in 
Swedish Pomerania. 

Original Population. As there is no evidence 
that the Celts ever penetrated to Scandinavia, the first pr- 
pulation appears to have consisted of Fins, who, perhaps 
seven or eight centuries before the Christian sera, were 
supplanted by the Goths, mythologically represented as 
lia\ingbeen conducted by Odin, or the god of war. No fo¬ 
reign conquest having since extended 'hither, the popula¬ 
tion continues purely Gothic in the southern parts ; while 
m the north there are remains of the Fins j and above them 




SWEDEN. 


177 


the Laplanders, a native diminutive race resembling the 
Samoieds of the north of Asia ; from w hence they seem to 
have originated. 

Historical Erocus. The following seem to con¬ 
stitute the chief historical epochs of Sweden : 

1. The early population by the Fins and Laplanders. 

2. The conquest by the Goths. 

3. What little knowledge the ancients possessed con¬ 
cerning the south of Scandinavia. 

4. The fabulous and traditional history, which begins- 
about the year of Christ 520, and includes the conquest of 
Sweden by Ivar Vidfatme king of Denmark, about A. D. 
760. Hence there is an obscure period till the reign of 
Biorn I. A. D. 829, commemorated, with his immediate 
successors, by Adam of Bremen. 

5. The conquest of Denmark by Olaf II. about the year 
900. 

6. The partial conversion of Sweden to Christianity in 
the reign of Olaf III. A. D. 1000 ; but more than half a 
century elapsed before Paganism can be considered as 
finally abandoned, in the reign of Ingi the Pious. A. D. 
1066. 

7. The accession of the Folkungian branch, about the 
middle of the thirteenth century. 

8. The Swedes discontented with their king Albert of 
Mecklenburg, in 1388 elected as their sovereign, Margaret 
heiress of Der» wdr k and Norway. Thus ended the Folk- 
ung-iai* : an d by the celebrated treaty of Calmar, A. D. 
1397, the three kingdoms of the north were supposed to 
be united for ever. But after the death of Margaret in 
1412, the Swedes began to struggle for their liberty : and 
in 1449 Karl or Charles VIII. was elected king of Sweden. 

9. The struggles betw een Denmark and Sweden, till the 
cruel and tyrannic reign of Christiern II. king of Denmark, 
Norway, and Sweden. 

10. Tyrants are the fathers of freedom. Gustaf Wase, 
whom we style Gustavus Vasa, delivers his country from 
the Danish yoke, after a contest which forms one of the 
most interesting portions of modern history. The revolt 
may be considered as having commenced when Gustaf ap¬ 
pears at Mora in Dalecarlia, A. D. 1520, and completed 
three years afterwards, when he entered Stockholm in 
triumph. Dissatisfied with the power of the clergy, which. 


178 


SWEDEN. 


had repeatedly subjugated the kingdom of Denmark, this 
great prince, in 1527, introduced the reformed religion, and 
died in his seventieth year, September 1560, after a glori¬ 
ous reign of thirty-seven years. 

11. The reign of Gustaf Adolph, or Gustavus Adolphus, 
A. D. 1611—1631. Austria, Spain, and the other Catholic 
kingdoms, having conspired to extirpate the Protestant 
religion in Germany, this king was invited to assist the re¬ 
formed ; and carried his victorious arms to the Rhine and 
the Danube. 

12. The reign of Charles XI. 1660—1697, when the 
arts and sciences began to flourish, and the power of the 
kingdom was carried to its utmost height. This reign of 
solid beneficence was followed by the calamitous sway of 
that madman Charles XII. 

13. After the frantic reign of Charles XII. Sweden sunk 
into political humiliation ; at one time awed by Russia, and 
at another cajoled by France. 

Antiquities. The ancient monuments of Swe¬ 
den consist chiefly of judicial circles, and other erections 
of unhewn stone, followed by the monuments inscribed 
with Runic characters, none of which can safely be dated 
more anciently than the eleventh century. 

Religion . 'ilie religion of Sweden is the Lu¬ 

theran, and this kingdom has retained an archbishopric 
with thirteen prelacies. The paribk- s amount to 2,537. 
The priests are computed at 1378 ; with ici vicars, and 
192 prepositi, or inspectors. Some of the parishes Hi ^ rvii’y 
extensive, as that of eastern Bothnia, which is about 150 
miles in length by 48 in breadth ; and another parish in 
Lapland is still larger. 

Government. By the act of union, 1789, the 
constitution of Sweden became an absolute monarchy ; the 
monarch having arrogated not only the rights of peace and 
war, and the administration of justice, but the imposition of 
taxes, without the consent of the diet, which cannot deli¬ 
berate on any subject till it be proposed by the sovereign. 
The diet consists of nobles, and landed gentlemen, clergy, 
burgesses, or deputies of towns, and those of the peasantry. 
Each of the four states has a speaker ; the archbishop of 
Lpsal being always the speaker of the clergy, while the 
king nominates the others. 


SWEDEN. 


179 


Population. When the great extent of the Swed¬ 
ish territory is considered, the population will appear com¬ 
paratively small; a circumstance arising in part from the 
mountainous nature of the country, and in part from the 
severe climate of the northern districts ; Swedish Lapland 
being supposed not to contain more than 7000 inhabitants. 
Yet at present the population of the kingdom is thought to 
exceed 3,000,000. The nobility are so numerous as to be 
computed at about 2,500 families; while the peasants, the 
most numerous class, amount to about 2,000,000. 

Army. The Swedish army consists of national 
troops, and of foreign infantry, the latter being computed 
at about 12,000. The total amount of the army may be 
48,000 ; and the soldiers are of distinguished valour and 
hardihood, and elated with the former fame of the Swedish 
arms. 

Navy. So fatal were the naval operations of 1792, 
that the Swedish fleet, which consisted of 30 ships of the 
line, cannot now display above half that number. In the 
Baltic, which is full of low coasts and shoals, gallies of a 
flat construction are found more serviceable than ships of 
war, and of course great attention is paid to their equipment 
by Sweden as well as Russia. 

Revenue. The revenue of Sweden is computed 
at about a million and a half sterling, which is equalled by 
the expences of the government. The national debt can¬ 
not be much less than 10,000,000/. sterling. 

Political Importance and Relations. The 
political importance and relations of this kingdom are much 
diminished since the glorious reign of Gustaf Adolph, 
and the beneficent sway of Charles XI. Prior to the late 
revolution in France, Sweden had been the dupe of that 
crafty cabinet. Of late this alliance seems to be sacrificed 
to a more useful connexion with Denmark and Prussia, 
which can alone guard the north of Europe from the pro¬ 
gress of the Russian preponderance. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the superior classes in Sweden and even of the pea¬ 
santry have been so Frenchified (a fatal symptom wherever 
it appears), that they have been styled the French of the 
north. It has even changed their complexion, which in 
the northern latitudes is generally fair, but is here much 
diversified, being in some provinces extremely brown. The 


180 


SWEDEN. 


men are commonly robust and well formed, and the women 
slender and elegant. The natives of the western province 
of Dalecarlia retain many ancient customs, and have been 
distinguished for their courage and probity, since the time 
ofGustaf Wase. 

Language. The language of Sweden is a dialect 
of the Gothic, being a sister of the Danish, Norwegian, and 
Icelandic In the south of Sweden, which contains the 
chief mass of population, some German and French words 
have been adopted; while the Dalecarlian on the N. W. is 
esteemed a peculiar dialect, perhaps only because it con¬ 
tains more of the ancient terms and idiom. 

Education. The manner of education has, as 
usual, been neglected by travellers and geographers, though 
perhaps one of the most important branches in the whole 
circle of human affairs. Compared with this primary 
foundation, an enumeration of universities is of small con¬ 
sequence. That of Upsal is the most ancient and renown¬ 
ed, containing about 500 students ; while that of Lunden 
presents about 300. A third is at Abo in Finland, fre¬ 
quented even by students from Russia ; and the whole num¬ 
ber is computed as equalling that of Upsal. There are 
besides twelve literary academies, most of which publish 
memoirs of their transactions. The library at Upsal is 
richly furnished with books remitted by Gustaf Adolph, 
when his victorious arms penetrated deeply into Germany ; 
Sweden having thus acquired by war the first materials of 
her literary fame. 

Cities and Towns. Stockholm, the capital of 
Sweden, stands in a singular situation, between, a creek, or 
inlet of the Baltic sea, and the lake Maeler. It occupies 
seven small rocky islands, and the scenery is truly singular 
and romantic. « “ A variety of contrasted and enchanting 
views is formed by numberless rocks of granite, rising 
boldly from the surface of the water, partly bare and crag¬ 
gy* partly dotted with houses or feathered with wood?* 
Most of the houses are of stone or brick, covered with 
white stucco : except in the suburbs, where several are 
of wood painted red, as usual in the country of Sweden. This 
city was founded about the middle of the thirteenth cen¬ 
tury 4 and in the seventeenth century, the royal residence 
was transferred hither from Upsal. The entrance to the 
harbour is through a narrow streight, of somewhat diffi- 


SWEDEN. 


181 


cult access, especially as there are no tides: and for four 
months in the year is frozen. It is however deep and ca¬ 
pable of receiving a great number of vessels. The royal 
palace stands in a central and high situation: and there are 
a castle, an arsenal, and several academies. The manufac¬ 
tures are few, of glass, china, woollen, silk, linen, & c . 13y 
the latest accounts the population of Stockholm may be 
estimated at 80,000. 

Next in dignity is Upsal, the only archbishopric, and 
formerly esteemed the chief city of the kingdom ; but at 
present the inhabitants, exclusive of the students, do not 
exceed 3000. 

Gotheborg, or Gothenburg, in the province of West 
Gothland, is esteemed the second city in Sweden, having 
a population of 20,000, though it was only founded by 
Charles IX. or rather by Gustaf Adolph. Besides consi¬ 
derable commerce, the herring fishery contributes to en¬ 
rich Gothenburg. The streets are uniform ; and the cir¬ 
cumference is computed at near three miles. 

Edifices. Even including the royal palaces, 
Sweden cannot boast of many splendid edifices. The 
roads are in general far superior to those of Denmark and 
Norway, which seem unaccountably neglected, good roads 
being the very stamina of national improvement. 

Inland Navigation. Of late a laudable attention 
has been paid to inland navigation ; and the chief effort has 
been to form a canal between Stockholm and Gothenburg. 
The intention was to conduct an inland route from the 
Meier Lake to that of Hielmer, and thence to that of 
Wener ; and by the river Gotha, an outlet of the latter, to 
the Skager Rack and German sea. This grand design is 
already in some measure completed. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The Swedish 
manufactures are far from being numerous, consisting 
chiefly of those of iron and steel; with cloths, hats, watches, 
and sail cloth. The manufactures of copper and brass, 
and the construction of ships, also occupy many hands. 
In 1785, it was computed that 14,000 were employed in 
those of wool, silk, and cotton. Of native products export¬ 
ed. iron is the most considerable; and it is said that the 
miners in the kingdom are about 25,600. 

The commerce of Sweden rests chiefly on the export of 
their native products, iron, timber, pitch, tar, hemp and 

Q 


182 


SWEDEN. 


copper. Herrings also form a considerable article. The 
chief import is corn of various kinds, particularly rye, 
Sweden rarely affording a sufficiency for her own con¬ 
sumption ; with hemp, tobacco, sugar, coffee, drugs, silk, 
wines, See. Ivir. Coxe has published a table of the Swedish 
commerce, whence it appears that the exports then amount¬ 
ed to 1,368,830/. 13.?. 5 d. and the imports to 1,008,392/. 
12s. 4\d. so that the balance in favour of Sweden was 
about 360,000/. 

Climate and Seasons. The different parts of 
Sweden present considerable varieties of temperature. 
The gulph of Bothnia becomes one field of ice ; and tra¬ 
vellers pass on it from Finland by the isles of Aland. In 
the most southern provinces, the climate may be compared 
to that of Scotland, which lies under the same parallel ; 
but the western gales from the Atlantic, which deluge the 
Scotish Highlands with perpetual rain, and form the chief 
obstacle to improvement, are little felt. In the north the 
summer is hot, by the reflection of the numerous moun¬ 
tains, and the extreme length of the days; for at Tornea, 
in Swedish Lapland, the sun is for some weeks visible at 
midnight; and the winter in return presents many weeks 
of complete darkness. 

Face of the Country. Soil and Agriculture. 
No country can be diversified in a more picturesque man¬ 
ner, with extensive lakes, large transparent rivers, winding 
streams, wild cataracts, gloomy forests, verdant vales, stu¬ 
pendous rocks, and cultivated fields. The soil is not the 
most propitious; but agriculture is conducted with skill 
and industry, so as much to exceed that of Germany and 
Denmark. Even Finland presents many rich pastures, 
and not a few fields of rye, oats, and barley. 

Rivers. Sweden is intersected by numerous rivers, 
the largest of which are in the native language called Elbs, 
or Elfs. The most considerable flow from the lakes, with¬ 
out any great length of course ; such as the Gotha, the only 
outlet of the vast lake of Wener, but impeded by many 
rocks and cataracts. The most important is the river 
Dahl, consisting of two conjunct streams, which rise in the 
Norwegian Alps, give name to the province of Dalarn, or 
Dalecarlia, and, after a course of about 260 British miles, 
enter the Bothnic gulph ; not far from its mouth is a cata¬ 
ract, esteemed little inferior to that of the Rhine at Schaff- 


SWEDEN. 


183 


hausen, the perpendicular height being between 30 and 40 
feet. The surrounding scenery also assists the effect, 
which is truly sublime. 

Farther to the north, and in Swedish Lapland, are many 
considerable rivers, which also arise from the Norwegian 
Alps, and flow into the gulph of Bothnia, after circuits of 
about 200 miles. 

Lakes. Few countries can rival Sweden in the 
extent and number of lakes, which appear in almost every 
province. Of these the most important is the Wener, 
which is about 80 British miles in length by about 50 in 
breadth, in great part surrounded with forests, and rocks 
of red granite. It receives 24 rivers, abounds with fish, 
and contains many romantic isles. 

Next is the Weter, a lake of equal length but inferior 
in breadth, which seldom exceeds twelve miles. This 
lake being surrounded with mountains is particularly sub¬ 
ject to storms in the stillest weather, whence arise many 
popular tales and superstitions. 

The lake Meier, at the conflux of which with the Baltic 
is founded the city of Stockholm, is about sixty British 
miles in length by eighteen in breadth, and is sprinkled 
with picturesque isles. And to the S. W. is the lake of 
Hielmar, more remarkable for its proposed utility in the 
inland navigation than for its extent. 

Mountains. Sweden may be in general regarded 
as a mountainous country ; in which respect it is strongly 
contrasted with Denmark proper, or Jutland, and the isles. 
The chief mountains are in that elevated chain which di¬ 
vides Sweden and Swedish Lapland from Norway ; from 
which successive branches run in a S. E. direction. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. Under 
the direction of the colleges established for the improve¬ 
ment of agriculture, the peasants have, at length, in a great 
measure, corrected the natural sterility of their country ; 
and, in favourable seasons, they now raise grain enough to 
supply the wants of the inhabitants. The fields in summer 
are covered with a beautiful verdure, enameled with flow¬ 
ers, and produce great quantities of currants, rasberries, 
strawberries, and other small fruit. Ostrogothia bears 
large crops of rye, wheat, barley, oats, beans and peas. 

Of timber trees there are but few species; the most 
common, and those which constitute the wealth of Scan- 


184 


SWEDEN. 


dinavia, are the Norway pine, and the nr : of these there 
are immense forests spread over the rocky mountains, and 
deepening with their sullen hue the whole horizon ; thou¬ 
sands of giant growth are every winter overthrown by the 
storms, and allowed to perish where they fall from the 
impossibility of transporting them to the sea; others in 
more accessible situations, are converted to various hu¬ 
man uses; the wood from its lightness and straightness is 
excellent for masts and yards, and various domestic pur¬ 
poses ; the juice, as tar, turpentine, and pitch, is almost of 
equal value with the wood; and the inner bark, mixed 
with rye meal, furnishes a coarse bread in time of scarcity. 
The mountain ash, the alder, the birch, and dwarf birch, 
and several kinds of willow, are found in the whole penin¬ 
sula ; the lime, the elm, the ash, and the oak, though grow¬ 
ing with freedom in the southern parts, are incapable of 
withstanding the rigours of a Lapland winter. 

The Swedish horses are commonly small but spirited ; 
and are preserved, by lying without litter, from some of 
the numerous diseases to which this noble animal is subject. 
The cattle and sheep do not seem to present any thing re¬ 
markable. Among the wild animals may be named the 
bear, the lynx, the wolf, the beaver, the otter, the glutton, 
the flying squirrel, <kc. The rein-deer of Lapland is briefly 
described in the account of the Danish monarchy. Sweden 
also presents one or two singular kinds of falcons, and an 
infinite variety of game. 

Minerals. Sweden has some gold and silVer 
mines, though they are not highly valued. Its copper 
mines are rich: the chief are in the province of Dalecar- 
iia. On the east of the town of Fahlun is a great copper 
mine supposed to have been worked for near a thousand 
years. The metal is not found in veins, but in large masses ; 
and the mouth of the mine presents an immense chasm, 
nearly three quarters of an English mile in circumference, 
the perpendicular depth being about 1020 feet. About 
1200 miners are employed. Copper is also wrought in 
Jemtland ; and at Ryddarhytte is found iron. Nor is Sweden 
deficient in lead : but iron forms the principal product, and 
the mine of Danamora is particularly celebrated for the 
superiority of the metal, which in England is called Qre- 
grund iron, because it is exported from Oregrund an adja¬ 
cent port, where the Bothnic gulph joins the Baltic. Berg- 


SWEDEN. 


185 


man describes the iron mine of Taber g in Smoland, as 
consisting of beds of ore, of a blackish brown, separated 
~ by beds of mould without any stone. This enormous mi¬ 
neral pile is rivalled by an entire mountain of iron ore near 
Tornea, in Lapland; and at Luleo the mountain of Gelli- 
var forms a mass of rich iron ore, of a blackish blue, ex¬ 
tending like an irregular vein for more than a mile, and in 
thickness from 300 to 400 fathoms. 


SWEDISH ISLANDS. 


Sweden possesses many islands, scattered in the Baltic 
sea and gulph of Bothnia. Rugen, the most southerly, 
affords as it were a passage to the Swedish possessions in 
Pomerania. It was annexed to Sweden by the treaty of 
Westphalia, and it is not a little productive in grain and 
cattle. Farther to the north east is the long island of 
Oland, or Oeland, in length about seventy miles, in breadth 
about six. The horses are small but strong, and the fo¬ 
rests abound with deer, nor is the wild boar unknown. Next 
occurs the island of Gothland, about seventy miles in 
length, and twenty-four in breadth ; a fertile district re¬ 
markable for an excellent breed of sheep. The isles of 
Aland mark the entrance of the Bothnic gulph, deriving 
their name from the largest, which is about forty miles in 
length, and fifteen in breadth, containing about 9000 inha¬ 
bitants, who speak the Swedish language, though included 
in the government of Finland. 


Q2 


PORTUGAL. 


THE ancient name of this country was Lusitania; that 
of Portugal is of recent origin. In the Roman period 
there was a town called Calle , now Oporto, near the mouth 
of the river Douro; and, this having been eminently dis¬ 
tinguished, acquired the name of Porto Calle; which, as 
the country was gradually recovered from the Moors, was 
improperly extended to the whole kingdom. 

Extent. Portugal extends about 360 British 
miles in length by 120 in breadth ; and is supposed to con¬ 
tain about 27,280 square miles, which, with a popu¬ 
lation of 1,838,879, will yield 67 inhabitants to the mile 
square. 

Original Population. The original population 
of Portugal may be traced in that of Spain, and has under¬ 
gone the same revolutions. 

Historical Epochs. The historical epochs of 
so recent a state cannot be numerous ; nor is it necessary 
to recur to those ancient events, which more properly be¬ 
long to the general history of Spain. 

1. The kings of Asturias subdue some of the Moorish 
chiefs of the north of Portugal. In 1054 Ferdinand king 
of Castile extends his conquests to Coimbra ; and on shar¬ 
ing his dominions among his sons, Don Garcia, along 
with Galicia, had a part of Portugal, whence he is styled 
on his tomb, A. D. 1090, Re x Portuyalia et Gal lie!a. 

2. Alphonso VI. brother of Garcia, and king of Castile, 
having favourably admitted several French princes to his 
court, among them was Henry, whom he nominated count 
of Portugal, adding his natural daughter Theresa in mar¬ 
riage. The count signalized himself by many victories 




PORTUGAL. 


187 


over the Moors, and died in 1112, leaving a son Alphonso 
I* of Portugal, who in the year 1139 gains an illustrious 
victory over five Moorish princes, and is acclaimed king by 
his troops upon the field of battle. 

3. Alphonso III. about the year 1254, completes the 
conquest of Algarve.—Portugal continued to be fortunate 
in a succession of great princes ; but the wars against the 
Moors were unhappily followed by those against the kings 
of Castile. 

4. Portugal was to attract the admiration of Europe by 
her commercial discoveries. In 1415 John the Great, 
king of Portugal, carrying his arms into Africa, and taking 
the city of Ceuta, an impulse was given to the national spi¬ 
rit ; and in 1420 we find the Portuguese in possession of 
Madeira. The Portuguese discoveries in Africa proceeded 
under John’s successors, Edward, and Alphonso V. and 
the auspices of Prince Henry, till, in the rei„n of John II. 
they extended to the Cape of Good Plope ; and in that of 
Emanuel, Vasco de Gama opened the blast Indies. 

5. John III. admits the inquisition, A. D. 1526; since 
which event the Portuguese monarchy has rapidly declined. 

6. Sebastian king of Portugal leads a powerful army on 
an idle expedition into Africa, and is slain in battle. He is 
succeeded by his uncle Cardinal Henry ; who dying two 
years afterwards, Portugal was seized by Philip II. king of 
Spain, 1580. 

7. The revolution of 1640, which placed the house of 
Braganza on the throne of Portugal. L.ittle of consequence 
has since arisen, except the earthquake at Lisbon in 1755, 
and the recent intermarriages with Spain, which promise, 
at no remote period, to unitg the kingdoms. 

Antiquities. The antiquities of Portugal consist 
chiefly of Roman monuments, with a few Moorish remains. 
In the farthest north is an extensive series of arches, for¬ 
merly a Roman aqueduct. Among the antiquities of the 
middle ages may be named the noble monastery of Rataiha, 
in ortuguese r stramadura, about 60 miles to the north of 
Lisbon, founded by John I. at the close of the fourteenth 
century, in consequence of the great victory over the king 
of Castile, one of the most noble monuments of what is 
called the Gothic style of architecture. 

Religion. The religion of Portugal is the Roman 
Catholic ; and a strict observance of its duties forms one 


18» 


PORTUGAL. 


of the national characteristics. There are two archbishop¬ 
rics, ancf ten episcopal sees : and there is besides a patri¬ 
arch. The number of parishes approaches four thousand. 

Government, See. The constitution of Portugal 
is a monarchy, absolute and hereditary ; yet in case of the 
king’s demise without male issue, he is succeeded by his 
next brother; whose sons have however no right to the 
throne till confirmed by the states. The chief articles 
of the constitution are contained in the statutes of Lamego, 
issued by Alphonso I. in 1145. The laws have few parti¬ 
cularities : they are lenient in cases of theft, which must be 
repeated four times before death be the punishment. 

Divisions and Population. Portugal is divided 
into six provinces. Two being on the north of the king¬ 
dom, two in the middle, and two in the south. The popu¬ 
lation of the whole is, according to Boetticher, 1,838,879 ; 
but by Murphy’s statement, 2,588,470. 

Army, See. The army is only computed at about 
24,000 ; and the militia might perhaps amount to as great a 
number. The naval power, once considerable, is reduced 
to thirteen sail of the line, and fifteen frigates. 

Revenues. The revenue is calculated at 2,000,000/. 
sterling, and the gold of Brasil mostly passes to England in 
return for articles of industry. 

Political Importance and Relations. Por¬ 
tugal retains small influence in the political scale of Eu¬ 
rope. Her commerce is almost wholly dependent on 
England ; but by land she is exposed to no danger except 
from Spain, or by the consent of Spain. The union of the 
two countries would doubtless be advantageous to both ; 
but might prove detrimental to English commerce, and 
the weight of England in the Portuguese councils would 
infallibly subside. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the Portuguese are discriminated into those of the 
northern and southern provinces, the former being more 
industrious and sincere, the latter more polite and indolent. 
In general the Portuguese are an elegant race, with regu¬ 
lar features embrowned by the sun, and dark expressive 
eyes. The prejudices of nobility are as common and per¬ 
nicious in Portugal as in Spain ; nor is that general inter¬ 
course found which imparts knowledge and vigour to so¬ 
ciety. Ladies of rank still imitate the industry of their 


PORTUGAL. 


189 


ancestors in spinning flax from the distaff: and the oriental 
manner of sitting on cushions on the floor is often practis¬ 
ed. The dress resembles the Spanish. The peasantry re¬ 
main miserable 'vassals of the Fidalgos, or gentlemen. 

Language. The Portuguese language is more 
remote from that of Castile than might be expected from 
the circumstances. As the royal race was of French ex¬ 
tract, it is supposed that many of the words are derived 
from the Limosin and other dialects of the S. of France. 
It is a grave and solemn speech. 

Public Schools. Education seems greatly ne¬ 
glected in Portugal, though the university of Coimbra be 
of ancient date. That of Evora was founded in 1553 ; and 
a college at Masra in 1772. The royal academy is of re¬ 
cent erection, and the design aspires to considerable public 
utility. 

Cities and Towns. Lisbon, the capital city of 
Portugal, was called by the ancients Ulyssippo, and the 
foundation fabulously ascribed to Ulysses. The situation 
is grand, on the north side of the mouth of the Tago, and 
is sheltered on the N. W. by a ridge of hills. The haven 
is capacious and excellent. The population is computed 
at about 200,000. The earthquake of 1755, a dreadful and 
memorable epoch among the inhabitants, has contributed 
to the improvement of the city, the new streets being broad 
and well paved, resembling those in the west end of Lon¬ 
don. The patriarchal church is singularly magnificent; 
and the revenue is computed at 114,000/. The English 
have an open burial ground. The royal monastery of Be¬ 
lem, founded by king Emanuel in 1499, stands about five 
miles S. W. of Lisbon ; and to the north is a noble modern 
aqueduct completed in 1732. 

The next considerable and only town we shall notice is 
Oporto ; seated on the N. side of the river Douro, about 
five miles from the sea, upon the declivity of a hill, so that 
the houses rise like an amphitheatre. The streets ^are 
however narrow, and the houses ill constructed, i he 
churches are of little note i the British factory is a lai\. e and 
neat building. The chief exports are wine, oranges, le¬ 
mons, &c. and linen cloth to the American colonies in 
Brasil. 

Edifices. The chief edifices of Lisbon are the 
cathedral, and monasteries, formerly mentioned. The no- 


190 


PORTUGAL. 


bility, as in Spain, crowd to the capita], whence the coun¬ 
try is little decorated with villas. Under this head may be 
also classed a noble aqueduct of two leagues, which conveys 
water from the rock of Liquor for the use of the city. Under 
the grand arch of this beautiful edifice, a frigate might 
pass in full sail. 

Inland Navigation. Portugal seems to have 
paid no attention whatever to the construction of canals ; 
nor perhaps are they found necessary, in a country abound¬ 
ing with rivers, and bordered with an ample extent of sea 
coast. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The Portu¬ 
guese manufactures are few and unimportant ; hats and 
paper have been lately fabricated at Lisbon; but the chief 
manufactories are those of woollen cloth at Covilham, 
Portalegre, and Azeitaon. 

^ A considerable commercial intercourse subsists with 
England ; but the balance in favour of the latter appears to 
be about 400,000/. sterling : and Ireland gains by her ex¬ 
ports about 63,000/. annually. The Falmouth packets 
bring frequent remittances of bullion, coin, diamonds, and 
other precious stones ; and for a considerable time the 
Portuguese gold money was current in England. Besides 
woollens and hardware, England transmits to Portugal 
large cargoes of salted and dried fish, the last article to the 
annual amount of about 200,000/. The exports of Portugal 
are chiefly wine, oil, oranges, lemons, figs, sugar, cotton, 
cork, drugs, and tobacco. Portugal also maintains a con¬ 
siderable trade with her flourishing colony in Brasil, the 
inhabitants of which are computed at 900,000. The arti¬ 
cles exported to America are chiefly woollens, linens, stuffs, 
gold and silver lace, fish dried in Portugal, hams, sausages, 
&c. with glass manufactured at Marinha. Brasil returns 
gold, silver, pearls, precious stones of various descriptions, 
rice, wheat, maize, sugar, molasses, ornamental timber! 
and many other articles rather curious than important. 

I he drugs, spices, and articles used in dying must not 
however be omitted. The trade with the East Indies is 
inconsiderable ; and that with the other European nations 
scarcely deserving notice. Some trade is also carried on 
with the American states. 

• r, (eimate ND Seasons. The climate of Portugal 
is iamihany known to be most excellent and salutary. At 


PORTUGAL. 


191 


Lisbon the days of fair weather are computed to amount to 
200 in the year ; and those of settled rain seldom exceed 
80. The medial heat is generally about 60°. 

Rivers. The chief rivers and mountains of Por¬ 
tugal have been already enumerated in the description of 
Spain. » 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
vegetable and animal productions of Portugal may be re¬ 
garded as the same with that ol Spain. I he horses are 
however much inferior. The sheep are also neglected, and 
far from numerous ; but swine abound, and are fed with 
excellent acorns, so that the Portuguese hams are de¬ 
servedly esteemed. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of Portugal has been 
almost as much neglected as the agriculture. In the two 
northern provinces are seen immense mines, supposed to 
have been worked by the Romans. 1 he mouth of the 
largest, cut through the solid rock, is a mile and a half in 
circumference, and upwards of 500 feet deep ; at the bottom 
it measures 2,400 feet by 1,400. Many subterranean pas¬ 
sages pierce the mountain like a labyrinth, and the whole 
works are on the grandest scale. Small veins of gold have 
been observed in the mountains of Goes and Estralla; 
and it is still found in the sand of some streams. Under 
the domination of the Spaniards, a mine of silver was 
worked, not far from Braganza, so late as the yeai 1628. 
Tin was also found in various parts oi the northern pro¬ 
vinces. There are lead mines at Mursa, Lamego, and 
Co o ; copper is found near Llvis and in other districts. 
The iron mines are neglected, from a deficiency ol tuel; 
though coal be found in different parts of the kingdom, 
and that of Buarcos supply the royal foundery at Lisbon. 
Emery is found near the Douro , and many beautiful mar¬ 
bles abound in this kingdom. Fullers earth occurs near 
Ouimerans. Portugal also boats of antimony, manganese, 
bismuth, and arsenic ; and near Castello-Branco are mines 
of quicksilver. Rubies have been discovered m Algarve ; 
jacinths in the rivers Cavado and Bellas ; beryl or aquama¬ 
rine in the mountain of Estralla. 

Natural Curiosities. On the north bank of 
the river Douro is a high massy cliff, with engraved letters 
or hieroglyphics, stained with vermilion and blue: be¬ 
neath which is a grotto supposed to abound with bitumen. 


SWISSERLAND. 


THE provinces now known by the collective name of 
Swisserland, were in ancient times distinguished by several 
appellations. By the Romans they were regarded as a 
part of Gaul; and the chief possessors were the Helvetii 
on the west, and the Rhasti on the east; the chief city of 
the Helvetians being Aventicum, now Avenche. On its 
emancipation, in the beginning of the fourteenth century, 
from the house of Austria, first appeared the modern de¬ 
nomination of Swisserland, either derived from the canton 
of Schweitz, distinguished in that revolution, or from the 
general name of Schweitzers, given by the Austrians to 
this alpine people. 

Extent. In length from east to west, Swisserland 
extends about 200 British miles ; and in breadth, from 
north to south, about 130 . The contents in square miles 
have been estimated at 14,960 ; but the greater part is lost 
to human industry, consisting of vast rocks, partly covered 
with eternal ice and snow. Even of this country, the boun¬ 
daries are rather arbitrary than natural; though on the 
west mount Jura forms a grand division from France ; and 
on the south the Pennine Alps, a partial barrier from Italy. 
On the east lies the Austrian territory of Tyrol, and on the 
north is Swabia, containing, as it were an excrescence of 
Swisserland on the other side of the Rhine, the small can¬ 
ton of Schaff hausen. 

Divisions. The Swiss league, before the French 
invasion, consisted of thirteen independent confederated 
cantons, together with their subjects and allies. Six of the 
cantons are Protestant, and seven Roman Catholic. 




SWISSERLAND. 


193 


Original Population. The original population 
is thought to have been Celtic; yet it would be difficult, 
either from history or from ancient appellations, to trace 
the residence of the Celts in Swisserland; and there is 
every reason on the contrary to believe that the Helvetians 
were a Gothic race, a very ancient colony of Germans. 

Historical Epochs. The chief historical epochs 
may be arranged in the following order: 

E The wars with the Romans; the subjugation of the 
Helvetii and Rhaeti, and the subsequent events till the de¬ 
cline ol the Roman empire in the west. 

2. The irruption of the Alemanni in the beginning of 
the fourth century, who are by some supposed to have ex¬ 
tirpated the ancient Helvetians. 

3. The subjugation of the western part of Swisserland as 
far as the river Reuss by the Franks, who annexed that 
portion of Burgundy. The Grisons on the east were sub¬ 
ject to Tlieodoric, and other kings of Italy. 

4. The conversion of the country to Christianity by the 
Irish monks Columbanus, Gailus, and others, in the begin¬ 
ning of the seventh century. 

5. The invasion of Alemannia by the Huns in the year 
909 ; and the subsequent contests with these barbarians till 
the middle of that century. 

6. About the year 1030 the provinces which now consti¬ 
tute Swisserland began to be regarded as a part of the em¬ 
pire of Germany ; and in the course of two centuries they 
gradually became subject to the house of Hapsburg. 

7. The commencement of the Swiss emancipation, 
A. D. 1307 ; and the subsequent struggles with the house 
of Austria. 

8. The gradual increase of the confederacy, the Bur¬ 
gundian and Swabian wars; and the contests with the 
French in Italy. 

9. The history of the reformation in Swisserland. 

4 

10. The insurrection of the peasants of Bern, in the 
middle of the seventeenth century. 

11. The dissolution of the confederacy by the French 
invasion, A. D. 1798, and its complete subjection, in i«03, 
to the dominion of France. 

Antiquities. The ancient monuments of Swis¬ 
serland are not numerous, consisting chiefly of a few re¬ 
mains of the Romans, at Aventicum and Vindernissa, and 

R 


194 


SWISSERLAND. 


at Baden, of the ancient Thermae Helvetic#. Of the mid¬ 
dle ages are many castles, churches, and monasteries ; 
among the latter that of the abbey of St. Gal, the library of 
which supplied the manuscripts of three or four classical 
authors, no where else to be found. 

Religion. The religion of the Swiss countries is 
in some, the Roman Catholic, in others, the Reformed. 
Of the former persuasion are Uri, Schweitz, Underwalden, 
cantons which founded the liberty of the country, with 
Zug, Lucerne, Friburg, Solothurn, part of Glarus, and Ap- 
penzel. In these are found six bishoprics, and one me¬ 
tropolitan see. The reformed cantons are of the Calvinistic 
or Presbyterian persuasion, being the rich and extensive 
canton of Bern, with Zurich, Basel, Schaffhausen, the 
greatest part of Glarus, and some portions of Appenzel. 
The country of the Grisons is chiefly Protestant; and \ al- 
-lais, an ally of the thirteen cantons, has been the scene of 
atrocious persecutions on account of its disaffection from 
the Catholic faith ; but in general the two persuasions live 
in the most amiable unity and moderation. 

Government. The government of Swisserland 
has'been a fertile theme of discussion. The most power¬ 
ful cantons of Bern, Zurich, Lucerne, and Friburg, had re¬ 
tained much of the feudal aristocratic form. The other 
cantons were more democratic; but the recent subversion 
of the government by the French has for some time re¬ 
duced Swisserland to a dependent province, with new di¬ 
visions and arrangements. The laws of course partook of 
the nature of the government of each canton ; and under 
the aristocracies were sufficiently jealous and severe. Yet 
Swisserland was one of the happiest countries in Europe, 
and recommended itself to the most intelligent observers 
equally by moral and by physical grandeur and beauty. 

Population. The population of this interesting 
country is generally computed at 2,000,000, or about 130 
to the square mile. But so large a portion is uninhabita¬ 
ble, that on a subtraction of such parts the number might 
be about 200 to the square mile. 

Army, The military force was reckoned at about 
20,000 ; but in the late struggle with France this force ap¬ 
pears to have been divided, and little effectual. The Swiss 
regiments in foreign service, mostly that of France, were 


SWISSERLAND. 


195 


computed at 29 ; but they returned weakened in frame and 
morals, and seldom proved serviceable to the state. 

Revenue. The ruinous effects of French extor¬ 
tion cannot be divined, but the revenue of Swisserland was 
formerly computed at somewhat more than a million ster¬ 
ling, arising from moderate taxation, from tolls, national 
domains, and foreign subsidies. 

Political Importance and Relations. The 
political importance and relations of Swisserland are im- 
merged in those of the French republic. Should the 
Swiss emancipate their country, their chief object would 
be protection against the power of France; and in this view 
nothing could be so serviceable as a strict alliance with 
Austria. Their proximity to France introduced the lan¬ 
guage, the manners, and intrigues of that country, and 
these, united with their jealousy of Austria, were the cause 
of their ruin. 

Manners and Customs. Amidst the general 
corruption of manners, those of the Swiss have long ex¬ 
cited applause, from their moral uniformity and frank inde¬ 
pendence. The houses are generally constructed of wood, 
in the most simple form, with staircases on the outside ; 
yet their appearance singularly coincides with the pictur¬ 
esque character of the country. The dress of the lower 
ranks is little subject to the laws of fashion, and in many 
cantons there are regulations to prevent idle ornament. 
Among the superior classes the manners may be consider¬ 
ed as partly German and partly French : but the latter have 
too much preponderated. In general the Swiss are re¬ 
markable for an intense attachment to their native coun¬ 
try ; and there are few who do not return there to termi¬ 
nate their existence. This impression is almost irresist- 
able, and liable to be awakened by the most minute cir¬ 
cumstances. Hence in the French armies the tune called 
the Ranees des Vaches, often sung by the Swiss milk¬ 
maids when they went to the pastures, was carefully inter¬ 
dicted, because it melted the rough Swiss soldier into 
tears, and seldom failed to produce desertion. 

Language. The language of Swisserland is a dia¬ 
lect of the German ; but the French is much diffused, and 
is often employed bv their best authors. In the most south¬ 
ern parts, bordering on Italy, the Italian is the common 
tongue. 


196 


SWISSERLAND. 


Education. The important subject of education 
has been little illustrated by the travellers into Swisserland ; 
but as they testify their surprise at the knowledge general¬ 
ly prevalent among the peasantry, there is reason to infer 
that this useful province is not neglected. There is an 
university of some reputation at Geneva, and another at 
Basel; with colleges at Berne, Zurich, and Lucerne. 

Cities and Towns. In enumerating the chief 
cities and towns of Swisserland, according to the compara¬ 
tive standard of population, Basel will engage the first at¬ 
tention, being supposed to contain 14,000 souls. This city 
stands in a pleasant situation upon the banks of the Rhine, 
here broad, deep, and rapid. It crowns both banks, and is 
united by a bridge. The cathedral is an ancient Gothic 
edifice, containing the tomb of the great Erasmus ; and the 
university has produced many illustrious men. 

Bern claims the next rank to Basel, possessing a popula¬ 
tion of about 13,000. This city is of singular neatness and 
beauty, the streets being broad and long, and the houses of 
grey stone resting on arcades. There are several streams 
and fountains ; and the river Aar almost surrounds the 
city. Bern contains several libraries and collections of 
natural curiosities. 

Zurich is the third in rank among the Swiss cities, situ¬ 
ated on a large lake, amidst a populous and fertile country, 
which produces abundance of wine for domestic consump¬ 
tion. I he college and plans of education are respectable; 
and the public library contains some curious manuscripts. 

Lausanne contains about 9000 inhabitants and is deserv¬ 
edly celebrated for the beauty of its situation, though in 
some spots deep and rugged. The church is a magnifi¬ 
cent Gothic building, having been a cathedral, while the 
Pays du Vaud was subject to the house of Savoy. 

Edifices. The chief edifices of Swisserland are 
in the cities, and have been already noticed. 

Commerce and Manufactures. Commerce 
and manufactures do not much flourish in this inland re¬ 
gion. Cattle constitute the chief produce of the country ; 
and some of the cheese forms an export of luxury. The 
chief linen manufactures were at St. Gal. Printed cottons, 
and watches also form considerable articles of sale, nor are 
silk manufactures unknown in Swisserland. 


SWISSERLAND. 


197 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of Swisser- 
land is deservedly celebrated as salubrious and delightful. 
From its southern position considerable heat might be 
expected ; but this, though sufficient to mature the grape, 
is attempered by the cold gales from the Alps and glaciers. 
When the sun descends beyond Mount Jura, on a sum¬ 
mer evening, the Alpine summits long reflect its splendour, 
and the lakes for near an hour assume the appearance of 
burnished gold. The winter is however in some parts ex¬ 
tremely severe ; and the summer heat in the deep vales 
sometimes oppressive. 

Rivers. The rivers of Swisserland are nume¬ 
rous ; and among the most sublime scenes of this country 
must be classed the sources of the Rhine and Rhone, two 
of the most important streams in Europe. 

The Rhine rises in the country of the Grisons, from a 
glacier upon the summit of mount Badur, at the head of a 
valley, called the Rhinewald. From its source the Rhine 
pervades or borders Swisserland, for about the space of 200 
British miles, running N. E. to the lake of Constance, 
whence it bends W. to Basel; where it begins its long nor¬ 
thern course. 

The Aar arises in the Alp called the Grimsel, bending 
its course to the N. W. till it arrives near Arberg, it after¬ 
wards turns N. E. receives the Reuss and the Limmat, and 
joins the Rhine opposite to Waldshut, after a course of 
about 150 British miles. 

The Reuss, which divides Swisserland into two almost 
equal parts, eastern and western, springs from the lake of 
Lucendro on the N. W. of St. Gothard. The Reuss joins 
the Aar, after a course of about 80 British miles. 

The Rhone, a noble stream, can only be regarded as a 
Swiss river prior to its entering the lake of Geneva, after a 
course of about 90 British miles through that extensive vale 
cailed the Vallais. This river rises in mount Furca, the 
source being rather warm, and about 5400 feet above the 
sea. 

Lakes. The lakes of Swisserland are numerous 
and interesting. The most considerable are those of Con¬ 
stance on the N. E. and Geneva on the S. W. The former 
is about 45 British miles in length, and in some places 15 
in breadth. 


R 2 


198 


SWISSERLAND. 


The lake of Geneva extends in the form of a crescent, 
about 40 British miles in length, and nine at its greatest 
breadth. The beauties of this lake have been celebrated by 
Rousseau, but would be considerably increased if it were 
sprinkled with islands. Next to these are the lakes Mag- 
giore, and Lugano. The lakes of Neufchatel and Zurich 
and some others of inferior note. 

Mountains. The mountains of Swisserland are 
the most celebrated in Europe ; and are supposed to yield 
in height to none, except those of South America. In a 
general point of view the Alps extend, in a kind of $emi- 
circular form, from the gulph of Genoa through Swisser¬ 
land, which contains their centre and highest parts ; and 
terminate in the Carnic Alps on the N. of the Adriatic sea. 
This chain has been divided into different portions, known 
by distinct appellations. The maritime Alps are those 
which arise from the gulph of Genoa. Mont Genevre, 
whence springs the river Durance, was anciently named 
the Alpis Cottia, from Cottius a prince who resided at Suza. 
Farther to the N. were the Alpes Grain;, now the little St. 
Bernard. The Alpes Pennine consisted of the great St. 
Bernard, Mont Blanc, and the grand chain extending on 
the S. of the Rhone, to the N. of modern Piedmont: the 
eastern part being also styled the Lepontine Alps, from a 
people who inhabited that region which gives origin to the 
Rhone and Fesino. The Rhcetian Alps extended through 
the Grisons and Tyrol, terminating in the Carnic, or Ju¬ 
lian Alps. 1 hat chain which pervades Swisserland, from 
mount Santez in the S. W. towards the sources of the Irm 
on the N. E. was known by the appellation of the Helvetian 
Alps. Some writers admit of more minute divisions, as 
the Tridentine Alps above Trent; and the Noric Alps 
above the source of the river Tagliamento. The extent of 
this vast course of mountains may be computed at about 
550 British miles. Of all these stupendous works of na¬ 
ture Mont Blanc is the highest, being 15,662 feet above 
the level of the sea. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. In no 
country, of which so great a proportion consists of lakes 
and mountains, can agriculture be carried to a great ex¬ 
tent. But there is no want of industry, and the grain seems 
sufficient for domestic consumption. Barley is cultivated 
even to the edge of the glaciers ; oats in regions a little 


SWISSERLAND. 


199 


warmer ; rye in those still more sheltered ; and spelt in 
the warmest parts. Yet in general the produce dees not 
exceed five for one ; and it has been found necessary to 
support public granaries, in case of any deficiency. The 
country being fitted by nature for pasturage, the chief de¬ 
pendence of the Swiss is on his cattle. A considerable quan¬ 
tity of flax is also cultivated, and tobacco has been lately 
introduced. Vines are cultivated in some of the districts. 
There is also abundance of fruit, apples, pears, plums, 
cherries, filberts ; together with mulberries, peaches, and 
other products of a warmer climate. In the Alpine valleys, 
and along the course of the torrents, vegetation assumes 
a stately appearance; the juniper, the savine, the stone- 
pine, and alder, broken by nature into irregular thickets, 
diversify the scene. 

On the declivities of the mountains, commence the fo¬ 
rests of larch, of pine, and fir, intermixed here and there 
with the yew, the mountain ash, and the birch. 

Where the firwoods cease, the subalpine regions begin, 
diversified with meadows and corn fields, and forests of 
deciduous trees. The oak, the elm, the beech, the ash, 
the lime, and the hornbeam are the most prevalent, and 
the borders of the streams are shaded by poplars and wil¬ 
lows. The plants are chiefly those which occur in the 
north and midland parts of France and Germany. 

The horses of Swisserland are esteemed for vigour and 
spirit : and the cattle attain great size. Among the ani¬ 
mals peculiar to the Alps may be first named the ibex, or 
rock goat. This animal resembles the common goat; but 
the horns of the male are extremely long and thick. The 
hair is long, and ash coloured, with a black list along the 
back. The ibex will mount a perpendicular rock of fifteen 
feet, at three springs, bounding like an elastic body struck 
against a hard substance. 

Another singular animal is the chamois, which is com¬ 
monly seen in herds of twenty or thirty with acentinel who 
alarms them by a shrill cry. The colouris yellowish brown; 
but they sometimes occur speckled. The food is the lichen 
with shoots of pine or fir. The marmot is common in the 
Swiss mountains. In summer they feed on alpine plants, 
and live in societies, digging dwellings in the ground for 
summer, and others for winter. About the beginning of 
October, having provided hay, they retreat to their holes, 


200 


SWISSERLAND. 


where they remain torpid till the spring. The size is be¬ 
tween that of the rabbit and the hare. Among Alpine birds 
may be named the vulture, called also the golden or beard¬ 
ed vulture. It inhabits the highest Alps, forming its nest 
in inaccessible rocks, and preying on the chamois, white 
hare, marmot, and sometimes on kids and lambs. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of this interesting 
country is not so important as we might be led to infer from 
its mountainous nature. Gold, copper and lead have been 
found in small quantities ; but the chief mines are those, of 
iron in the country of Sargans. In the canton of Bern, 
there are valuable quarries of rock salt: and it is said that 
coal and native sulphur are not unknown. Rock crystal 
forms perhaps the chief export of Swisserland, being some¬ 
times found in such large pieces as to weigh seven or eight 
hundred weight. 

Natural Curiosities. To enumerate the na¬ 
tural curiosities of Swisserland would be to describe the 
country. The Alps, the glaciers, the vast precipices, the 
descending torrents, the sources of the rivers, the beauti¬ 
ful lakes and cataracts, are all natural curiosities of the 
greatest singularity, and most sublime description. Of 
late the glaciers have attracted particular attention ; but 
those seas of ice, intersected with numerous deep fissures, 
owing to sudden cracks which resound like thunder, must 
yield in sublimity to those stupendous summits clothed 
with ice and snow, the latter often descending in what are 
called avalanches, or prodigious balls, which, gatiieiing as 
they roll, sometimes overwhelm travellers and even' vil¬ 
lages. 

On the north of Swisserland the Rhine, near the village 
of Nauhasen, descends in a cataract of 40 feet amidst black 
and horrid rocks. Among the milder charms of the coun¬ 
try may be named the lakes ; ancl the small lake of Eandel 
Steig bears at one extremity the charms of summer, 
while the other presents the glaciers and pomp of v inter. 
Numerous rills, which descend from the mountains, often 
fall in cascades of great beauty, among which that of 
Staubbach is computed at 900 feet, over a rock as perpen* 
dicular as a wall. 


GERMAN STATES 


IN describing an extensive country, subdivided into many 
states, it becomes indispensable to give a general idea of 
the whole, before the respective territories are delineated. 
The geography of Germany is the most perplexed of any 
region on the globe, the great divisions, or circles , being 
now interwoven, and almost antiquated, while no modern 
and more rational distribution has yet appeared. 

Extent. Germany, considered in its modern li¬ 
mits, extends about 600 British miles in length, from the 
isle of Rugen in the north, to the southern limits of the 
circle of Austria. The modern breadth, from the Rhine 
to the eastern boundary of Silesia, is about 500 British 
miles : anciently the breadth extended beyond the Vistula, 
about 200 miles more to the east. 

Original Population. This country appears 
to have been full of extensive forests, even in the Roman 
period, and of course to have been in many parts thinly 
peopled. The Cimbri, or modern Celts, possessed several 
tracts in the south, as they certainly occupied a large por¬ 
tion of the N. W. The N. E. of Germany was held by the 
Finnish nations ; but both were obliged to yield to the in¬ 
vasion of the Scythians or Goths who migrated westward 
from their original seats on the Euxine, long before the 
Roman interference in the affairs of those countries. 

Historical Epochs. Some of the grand histori¬ 
cal epochs have already been mentioned, in describing 
those large portions of Germany, the Austrian and Prus¬ 
sian dominions ; and some of the others may be briefly 
hinted in the account of the respective states. Suffice it 
hereto mention: 1. The ancient period, chiefly resting on 




202 


GERMAN STATES. 


the account of the Roman and Francic historians. 2. The 
middle period. In the end of the eighth century, Charle¬ 
magne. having subdued the Saxons and other parts of Ger¬ 
many and Italy, was in the year 800 proclaimed emperor 
of the West. His successor Louis le Debonnaire held the 
empire with France ; but his son Lothaire I. was restricted 
to Germany. After many intestine commotions Henry 
duke of Saxony was chosen emperor in 918, and this line 
failing 1024, was followed by that of Franconia. In the 
twelfth century arose the factions of the Guelphs and Gi¬ 
belines, and, after long contests, the sceptre was at length 
assigned to the house of Austria in 1273; and after some 
deviations continued to remain in that family. 3. The mo¬ 
dern period, which may be traced from Charles V. or from 
his grandfather Maximilian. 

Antiquities. The antiquities of Germany con¬ 
sist chiefly of a few Roman remains in the S. and W. It 
would be endless to enumerate the churches founded by 
Charlemagne ; or the numerous castles erected by power¬ 
ful princes and barons. 

Religion. The religion of the greater part of 
Germany may be pronounced to be the Reformed, first in¬ 
troduced into Saxony by Luther. Yet the south continues 
firmly attached to the Roman Catholic faith, now chiefly 
supported by the house of Austria. 

Government. The government is that of an aris¬ 
tocracy, which elects a monarch, who may be of any fami- 
ly» Gatholic, Lutheran, or Calvinist. To consider the con¬ 
stitution at length, which hasbeen called by a German writer 
“ a confusion supported by providence,” would be foreign 
to the nature ol this work. & 

Population, See. The population of Germany 
in general is computed at little more than 25,000,000. It 
was supposed that the empire could, if united, send forth a 
contingent army of 400,000 ; but such calculations are 
visionary in the present state of affairs. The revenues 
political importance and relations, are now detached, and 
ha\ e already been in a great part considered under the ar¬ 
ticles of Prussia and Austria. The manners, customs, and 
dialects vary according to the different states. The Saxon 
is accounted the purest and most classical idiom of the 
German tongue ; and the southern dialects of Swabia, Ba¬ 
varia, and Austria, the most uncouth. 


GERMAN STATES. 


20S 


In the descriptions of the Austrian and Prussian domi¬ 
nions are contained many of the eastern provinces of Ger¬ 
many. The part which remains is the western half, natu¬ 
rally divided into two portions by the river Mayn. 

Rivers. Both portions are watered by numerous 
and important rivers. In the north the Elbe is the most 
distinguished stream, rising in the Sudetic mountains of 
Silesia, and entering the sea near Cuxhaven, after a com¬ 
parative course of more than 500 British miles, i he chief 
cities on the banks of the Elbe are Dresden, Meissen, Wit¬ 
tenberg, Magdeburg, from which it runs almost a solitary 
stream to Hamburg. 

Not far to the west is the mouth of the Weser, which 
first receives that name when its two sources, the Werra 
and the Fulda join. Including the Werra, its chief branch, it 
flows about 270 British miles. The principal towns on this 
river are Bevern, Minden, and Bremen. 

The sources and mouths of the Rhine have been already 
described. This noble river forms the grand ancient bar¬ 
rier between France and Germany ; and its course may be 
computed at about 600 British miles. 1 he Rhinegau is 
not only celebrated for its wines, but for the romantic ap¬ 
pearance of the country, the river running through wild 
rocks crowned with majestic castles. 

In the southern part of Germany the most important 
river is the Danube, which according to the common opi¬ 
nion rises near the little town oi Donauschingtn in bwabia, 
or a little farther to the north. This noble river becomes 
navi able a little above ETm, where it receives the ller. 1 he 
next tributary stream of consequence is the Lech, w hich 
comes from i yrol, a stream distinguished in the seat of 
the recent w'ar; as is the Iser, proceeding from U pper Ba¬ 
varia. The Danube runs about 250 miles through this part 
of Germanv, passing by Ulm, Ratisbon, and i assau. lo 
Orsova it may be considered as an Austrian river lor about 
550 miles ; thence it is Turkish for about 480 to the 

Euxine. . . . 

The Necker is a tributary stream of the Rhine, rising 
in the Black Forest, and running about 150 British miles 
through a country variegated with vineyards. Another and 
grander tributary stream ol the Rhine is the Mayn, which 
after receiving the Rednitz and other considerable streams} 


204 


GERMAN STATES. 


joins the Rhine to the S. of Mentz. The Mayn is a muddy 
stream, but abounds with trout, carp, and other fish. 

Lakes. Germany presents few lakes, the largest 
being in the duchy of Mecklenberg, where the lake of Plan 
extends under various Dames about 25 British miles, in 
length, by 6 in breadth. 

Mountains. The most northern mountains in 
Germany are those of the Hartz, called the Brocken or 
Biocks'berg. The highest about 302 1 feet. 

The Hessian territories may be regarded as generally 
mountainous, especially towards the north. Thence S. W. 
towards the Rhine are several considerable hills, among 
which may be mentioned those in the west of Wetterau, 
and the seven hills near the Rhine almost opposite to An- 
dernach ; with the ridge of Heyrich which protects the 
vines of Rhinegau. 

But the most celebrated mountains, in that part of Ger¬ 
many which lies to the N. oi the Mayn, are the Erzgeberg, 
or Metallic Mountains, which rise to the N. E.°of the 
Fichtelberg, running between Bohemia and Saxony, but 
supplying both countries with silver, tin, and other me¬ 
tals. 

Among the German mountains to the S. of the Mayn 
may first be named the Bergstrass, a ridge passing from 
near Manheim to the vicinity of Frankfort. The moun¬ 
tains of the Black forest, in German Schwartzwald,extend 
from near Neuenourg, in the territories ol Wurtemberg 
south to the four forest towns on the Rhine. The southern 
pai t is called the High, and the northern the Lower foresti 
the length being about 80 and the breadth 20 British miles. 

The south east of this portion of Germany is bounded 
by the high mountains of Bavaria and ^ alzia or Salzburg j 
being branches or continuations of the Swiss or Tyrolese' 
Alps, but without general appellations. The Alps of Salz¬ 
burg exceed in height the Carpathian chain or the Py¬ 
renees, and only yield to the Swiss and Tyrolese Alps, the 
highest summits being computed at more than 10,000 feet 
above the sea. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. As Spain 
is distinguished by its groves of cork trees and ilex, and 
Scandinavia by its fir woods, so is Germany remarkable for 
its deep and almost impenetrable forests of oak: not indeed, 
that this is the invariable characteristic of the country* for 

0 * 


GERMAN STATES. 


205 


in an empire of such great extent, and of so varied a sur¬ 
face, it must needs happen that the native vegetable pro¬ 
ductions on the shore of the German ocean should differ 
considerably from those in the Black Forest or on the fron¬ 
tiers of Tyrol. There is however on the whole more uni¬ 
formity than might be expected, and though perhaps few 
plants are absolutely peculiar to Germany, yet the abun¬ 
dance of some species, and the absence of others, forms a 
striking feature in the natural history of the empire, of 
which more particular notice hereafter. 

The zoology of this western half of Germany corresponds 
so much with that of the Austrian and Prussian dominions, 
that little need be added. The German horses are gene¬ 
rally more remarkable for weight than spirit. The Ger¬ 
man wild boar is of superior size; and those of Westphalia 
are in particular estimation. In the N. of Germany the 
lynx is sometimes seen ; and the wolf is common in the 
south. 


THE CHIEF GERMAN STATES ON THE NORTH OF THE 

MAYN. 

Saxony. — Brunswick. — Lunenburg. — Hessia. — Mecklenburg. 

Duchy of Brunswick. — City of Hamburg.—Smaller States. 

Kcclesiasiic Bowers. 

IN this division of Germany the elector of Saxony must 
be regarded as the chief potentate, his territories being 
computed at 11,680 square miles, the inhabitants at 
2,104,000, and the revenue at 1,300,000/. sterling. The 
name is derived from the ancient nation of the Saxons, 
who in the middle ages held the greatest part of the N. 
and W. of Germany. 

The countries comprised in the electorate of Saxony 
are, the duchy so called, Voigtland, Lusatia, and part of 
Thuringia, with part of Misnia and Heneberg ; being in 
length from E. to W. about 220 British miles, and in 
breadth from N. to S. about 130. 

The religion is the Protestant, which was here intro¬ 
duced by Luther ; and there are two bishoprics, Merse- 
herg and Naumburg. The government is, as usual among 


206 


GERMAN STATES. 


the German princes, nearly absolute, but conducted with 
moderation through different councils Yet there are 
states general of nobles, clergy, and burgesses, commonly 
assembled every sixth year to regulate the taxation ; and the 
sovereign can issue no laws without their consent. The 
army is about 32,000, and the political weight of Saxony in 
this part of Germany is next to that of 'Prussia. 

The language and literature of Saxony are the most dis¬ 
tinguished in all Germany, most of the writers who have 
refined the language having been born, or having resided 
in this country. There are many schools, colleges and aca¬ 
demies ; among the latter, the mineralogic academy of 
Freyoerg, instituted in 1765, is esteemed the leading school 
of that science. The chief city is Dresden on the Elbe, 
of celebrated neatness ; and about 50,000 inhabitants. The 
manufactures of Saxony are thread, linen, laces, ribbons, 
velvets, carpets, paper, colours derived from various mi¬ 
nerals, glass, and porcelain of remarkable beauty, and va¬ 
rious works in serpentine stone. The country is also rich 
in native products, both agricultural and mineral, and beau¬ 
tiful pearls are found in the Elster in shells about six inches 
long. With such advantages Saxony maintains a consi¬ 
derable inland commerce; and Leipsig is esteemed one of 
the chief trading towns of Germany. 

The climate is so favourable that wine is made in Misnia. 
The face of the country, especially towards the south, is 
beautifully diversified with hill and dale ; and its richness 
between Meissen and Dresden is esteemed to rival that of 
the north of Italy. The land is well cultivated ; the pro¬ 
ducts, all kinds of grain and vegetables, with hops, flax, 
hemp, tobacco, saffron, madder, See. Chief rivers, the 
Elbe, the Saal or Sala, the Mulda, the Pleisse, the Elster, 
with the Spree of Lusatia. Few countries can boast of 
such fossil opulence as Saxony. The mines of Johngeor- 
genstadt, produce silver, tin, bismuth, manganese, cobalt, 
wolfram, Sec. At Schneckenstein, near Averbach in the 
Voigtland, appears the topaz rock, unique in its kind. The 
tin of Saxony is not only a rare product, but is excellent. 
Jet is also found; and abundance of fine porcelain clay, 
with fullers’ earth, marble, slate, serpentine, agates, and 
jasper. 

Next in consequence is the electorate of Brunswick 
Lunenburg, or, as often styled from the capital, the elector- 


GERMAN STATES. 


20 7 


ate of Hanover, containing about 8224 square miles, with 
850,000 inhabitants, and the computed revenue 962,500/. 
sterling, while the military force is estimated at 25,970. 
It is situated in the circle of Lower Saxony. The coun¬ 
tries comprised in the electorate of Hanover are chiefly 
the duchy of Luneburg, Bremen, and Verden, and Saxe 
Lauenburg adjacent to Holstein ; with the countries of 
Calenburg and Grubenhagen in the south, and those of 
Diepholtz and Hoya in the west, and that of Danneberg in 
the east. It may be computed that the compact part of 
the Hanoverian dominions extends in length, east to west, 
about 180 miles: and in breadth N. to S. about 100 miles; 
while the detached duchy of Grubenhagen, with southern 
Calenburg or the country of Gottingen, is about 80 miles 
in length by 30 in its greatest breadth. 

The religion is the Lutheran. The government is 
now conducted by a council of regency, and there are pro¬ 
vincial states, though rarely summoned. The literature of 
this country has deserved considerable applause, since the 
institution of the university of Gottingen by George II. It 
was founded in 173 4, and solemnly opened 1737. The 
chief city is Hanover, situated on the river Leine, amidst 
numerous gardens and villas. It is slightly fortified, and 
contains about 15,500 inhabitants. In the new city, on the 
left of the Leine, is a library, particularly rich in books of 
history and politics. The manufactures and commerce of 
this electorate are pretty considerable, in metals from the 
Hartz, linen, cotton, some broad cloths, &c. 1 he silver 

fabrics of Zell are celebrated in Germany. The chief ex¬ 
ports are metals, coarse linens, timber, peat, with some 
cattle and grain. 

The agricultural products are wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
peas, haricots, and pot-herbs of all kinds ; with abundance 
of potatoes, good fruits, flax, hemp, tobacco, madder, See. 
Wood abounds both for fuel and architecture, and affords 
considerable quantities of tar and pitch. Bees aie paiticu- 
larly attended to. Horses, cattle, and sheep are numerous. 
The chief river is the Elbe towards the north ; and the 
Weser and Leine on the west; with the Aller and lime- 
nau in the centre. The mineralogy is rich, consisting of 
silver, copper, lead, iron, cobalt, zinc ; with marble, slate, 
coal, turf, and limestone, the last particularly from the 
hill of Kalkberg near Luneburg. Two curious mineral 


203 


GERMAN STATES. 


substances, boracite, and staurolite, are found, ihd fortner 
in the Kalkberg, the latter at Andreasberg in the Hartz: 
which region likewise presents several singular features of 
nature, as the cavern of Blackenburg, the termination of 
which has never been explored, and the cave of Hamelen. 

The bishopric of Osnabruck in Westphalia may be 
considered as an appanage of Hanover, adjoining to the 
county of Dieplioltz. Its inhabitants about 120,000 : re¬ 
venue 26,250/. 

Having thus described, at some length, the two chief 
and leading principalities on the north of the Mayn, a few 
others, the next in power, may be briefly mentioned. 

In this secondary view of the north of Germany the first 
place must be assigned to Hessia, a country of no mean 
extent nor fame. Some districts, as usual, being assigned 
to princes of the family, the ruling state is denominated 
Hesse Cassel, so called from the capital. This territory 
is about 80 British miles in length, and nearly the same in 
breadth : miles square, 2760, with 700,000 inhabitants, mi¬ 
litary force 12,000. This country is generally mountainous ; 
but there are many pleasant vales, sometimes, containing 
vineyards, and fields fertile in corn and pasturage. It 
abounds in game and fish, and there are many fossils and 
minerals : the sands of the Eder contain particles of gold ; 
and there was formerly a mine of that metal, but of small 
account, near Frankenberg. There are also found silver, 
copper, lead, coal, fine clays, with veins of marble and ala¬ 
baster, and some medicinal waters. There are states of 
three orders, nobles, clergy, and burgesses from Cassel, 
Marburg, and other towns. The religion is the reformed 
with two or three superintendants. The universities are 
those of Marburg and Rinteln, and that of Gissen belong- 
ing to Hesse Darmstadt, ruled by another branch of the 
family. There is some trade from the natural products, 
and a few manufactures of linen, cloth, hats, stockings, kc. 
Fhe chief city is Cassel, which contains about 22,000 in¬ 
habitants, and is pleasing, though often injured by war. 
Hanau is also a considerable place ; and the country so 
called is supposed to contain 100,000 souls. 

1 he duchy of Mecklenburg is supposed to contain 4,800 
square miles, with 375,000 inhabitants, or by Hoeck’s ac- 
count 300,000. It is divided into two parts, known by the 
additions of Schwerm and Guslro, full ef lakes, heaths and 


GERMAN STATES. 


209 


marshes ; and the soil being- sandy, produces little but rye 
and oats. The states, consisting of nobility and burgesses, 
are assembled yearly to regulate the taxation. The reli¬ 
gion is the Lutheran, with six superintendants; and an 
university at Rostock. The manufactures are wool ancl 
tobacco : the exports, partly by Lubec, partly by Hamburg, 
are grain, flax, hemp, hops, wax, honey, cattle, butter, 
cheese, fruits, feathers, dried geese, tallow, linseed, wool, 
and timber. 

The duke of Brunswick possesses a territory of 1472 
square miles, with 170,000 inhabitants; the chief city be¬ 
ing Brunswick, which contains about 22,000 : but Ins terri¬ 
tory is called the principality of Wolfenbuttel, from a town 
of far less importance. The face of the country resembles 
the electorate of Hanover. Here is a rich convent of nuns 
at Gandersheim of the Lutheran persuasion, the abbess be¬ 
ing generally a princess of the family. There are several 
small manufactures; and the strong beer cf Brunswick, 
called mum, is exported from Hamburg. 

Nor must the city of Hamburg be omitted, being after 
Vienna and Berlin, the third city in Germany, and suppos¬ 
ed to contain 102,000 inhabitants, or by Iioeck’s account 
95,000 : while no other, except Dresden and I rankfort on 
the Mayn, contain more than 30,000. The Elbe is here, 
including the islands, near a mile broad. 1 be houses are 
rather commodious than elegant and there are few fine 
streets, the population being overcrowded on account of the 
fortifications built in the old Dutch taste, with spacious 
ramparts planted with trees. It is ruled by a senate of 37 
persons, the form being aristocratic. The religion is Lu¬ 
theran. There are considerable breweries and works for 
refining sugar, with some manufactures of cloth, formerly 
the trade chiefly consisted of linens, woollens, wine, sugar, 
coffee, spiceries, metals, tobacco, timber, leather, corn, 
dried fish, furs. See. but at present it is the great mart of 
the commerce of the British isles with the continent. The 
bank was founded in 1619 ; and the numerous libraries do 
honour to the taste of the inhabitants. Its chief depen¬ 
dencies are the river of Alster, the bailliage of Ham, some 
isles and lowlands on the Elbe ; and, besides some districts 
acquired from Holstein, the bailliage of Ritzebuttel, on the 
north of the duchy of Bremen, including the port of Cux- 
haven, and the isle called Neuewerk, situated opposite te 
that port. S 2 


210 


GERMAN STATES. 


In this northern half of Germany there are six or seven 
other smaller principalities, containing together about half 
a million of people ; besides the three ecclesiastical elector¬ 
ates of Mentz, I reves and Cologne, 'which contain about 
o00,000 inhabitants, each, and six or seven bishoprics of 
fiom 70,000 to 200,000 each : but some ol these have been 
partitioned between France and Prussia. 


THE GERMAN STATES ON THE SOUTH OF THE MAYN. 


Electorate of Bavaria conjoined with tie Palatinate. 

of ll r ,urtemburg .— Anspach. - Salvia .- Smaller 

Ecclesiastic Power. 


—Ducny 

States .— 


IX the southern division, Austria excepted, the elector 
of Bavaria and the Palatinate is the chief of all the secon¬ 
dary powers, his dominions being computed at 16,176 
miles square, with 1,934,000 inhabitants. The French 
having seized more than half of the Palatinate on the left 
bank of the Rhine, the remaining part, on the riirht bank 
of the river, is about twenty-four British miles in length, bv 
the same at its utmost breadth ; but contains the best part 
of the principality, pervaded by the river Neckar, produc¬ 
ing excellent wines, and enriched by the cities of Manheim 
and Heidelbei g. In 1693 the Palatinate was rendered al¬ 
most a desert by the Vandalic ravages of the French. In 
the last war, after mangling the carcase, they claimed it 
as their own. 

The duchy of Bavaria is divided into Upper and Lower 
and what is called the Higher Palatinate (or that of Bava¬ 
ria). The length from N. to S. is somewhat interrupted 
but may be about 150 British miles, and the breadth about 
120. Upper Bavaria is, in a great degree, mountainous, 
and covered with forests, interspersed with large and small 
lakes. Lower Bavaria is more plain and fertile. The 
chief mineial liches of Bavaria consist in the salt springs at 
Ii aunstein, which occupy many people in productive in¬ 
dustry. The religion is the Roman Catholic, which, as 
Usual, damps the spirit ol industry ; and the manufactures 
are of small account, the chief exports being corn and cattle 
1 he revenue is computed at 1,166,600/. and the military 


GERMAN STATES. 


2 M 

iorce at 12,000. The chief city is Munich, esteemed the 
most elegant in Germany, with 38,000 inhabitants; in 
Lower Bavaria are Landshut and Strauben. 

The next potentate in the south is the duke of Wur- 
temburg, whose dominions are computed at 3,200 square 
miles, with 600,000 inhabitants. His revenue is computed 
at 245,000/. his military force at 6,000. This duchy forms 
the most considerable and fertile part of the circle of Swa¬ 
bia ; and is, indeed, after Saxony, one of the best in the em¬ 
pire. The chief grain is spelt, and some barley and wheat, 
with flax, See. and the fertility suffices even for export. The 
wines of. the Necker are not so abundant as to supersede 
the use of cyder. The chief river is the Necker, which, 
with the Nagold, and its other tributary streams, enlivens 
and fertilizes the duchy. The states consist of fourteen 
superior clergy, and the deputies of sixty-eight towns and 
bailliages. The religion is the Lutheran, with some Cal¬ 
vinists, and some colonies of the Vaudcis. There are ma¬ 
nufactures of pottery, glass, woollen, linen, and silk ; which, 
with the natural products of the country, supply a conside¬ 
rable export: the imports are by Frankfort on the Mayn. 
The chief city is Stutgard, agreeably situated on a rivulet 
which flows into the Necker, and the ducal residence since 
the year 1321. 

Among the secondary pow r ers, in this southern division 
of Germany, must first be named Anspach, or Onolsbach, 
which, with Bareuth, maintains a population of 320,000 on 
2,300 square miles. These regions are mountainous and 
sandy ; but near the Mayn yield good wines. The chief 
mines are of iron, the others being neglected. 

The country of Salz, also called Salzia, and the arch¬ 
bishopric of Salzburg, is a compact and interesting re¬ 
gion, about 100 English miles in length, and GO at its 
greatest breadth ; computed at 2,8SO square miles, and a 
population of 250,000 ; by Iioeck’s account, only 200,000. 
The archbishop is primate of all Germany, the see being 
founded by St. Rupert, an Englishman, in 716. Salzburg 
has an university, with about 20,000 inhabitants. r l he Ro¬ 
man Catholic system has banished many industrious inha¬ 
bitants, who have chiefly taken refuge in the Prussian domi¬ 
nions. The salt works at Hallen, about twelve miles S 
of Salzburg, are very lucrative. 


212 


GERMAN STATES. 


This grand southern division of Germany also contains 
the territories of the Margrave of Baden, 832 square miles, 
with 200,000 inhabitants ; the lands of Hesse Darmstadt, 
belonging to another reigning branch of the house of Hes- 
sia, the imperial city of Nuremberg whicti has considera¬ 
bly declined, but still contains about 30.000 souls, while 
Ulm has not above half the number. To enumerate other 
small secular principalities w ould only obstruct the inten¬ 
tion of this description, which is to impress on the memory 
the more important. 

But as the intention of secularizing the numerous eccle¬ 
siastical territories in Germany seems to be the politics of 
the day, it may be proper to add here, the names at least of 
the chief sees to the south of the Mayn. 1. The archbishop¬ 
ric of Salzburg, which has been already described. 2. The 
large bishopric of Wurtzburg, being chiefly on the north 
of the Mayn, has been mentioned before. 3. Hamburg. 
4. The bishopric of Spevr, or, as the French call it, Spire, 

one half of which is now subject to France. 5. The bi- 

•/ 

shopric of Aichstett, in the southern extremity of Franco¬ 
nia. 6. The large and opulent bishopric of Am sburg. 7. 
Of Constance, whose territories also extend into Swisser- 
land. 8. A great part of the bishopric of Strasburg. 9. 
The large abbatiai territories of Kempten, Buchan, and 
Lindau ; with the priory of Ellwangen in the north. 10. 
The bishopric of Fassau. 11. That of ITeysingen, w ith 
the county of Werdenfels. And 12. The bishopric of Ra- 
tisbon, which is of small extent. The lion and other beasts 
agreed to hunt in partnership ; it would be wise in some 
of the small partitioners of the ecclesiastical territory to re¬ 
collect the result of the fable. 


ITALIAN STATES 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 

Divisions .—Boundaries.—Extent .——Original Population .— 
Present Population.—Face of the Country .—Rivers.— 
Lakes. — Mountains.—B at any .—Zoology . 

THE classical and interesting country of Italy has been 
so repeatedly described, that it has become familiar even 
to the common reader. This description shall therefore 
be restricted to very narrow limits ; and will also of neces¬ 
sity be somewhat abridged by the present unsettled state 
of the country. We shall delineate only those lasting fea¬ 
tures of nature which no political change can influence. 

Divisions. Italy may be regarded as having been, 
in all ages of history, divided into three parts, the southern, 
the central, and the northern. The southern part having 
received many Greek colonies was honoured with the anci¬ 
ent appellation of Magna Grsecia : the centre was the seat 
of Roman and Etrurian power ; while the northern was the 
Cisalpine Gaul. 

Boundaries, &c. The boundaries of this renown¬ 
ed country are deeply impressed by the hand ot nature, in 
the Adriatic and Mediterranean seas, and the grand barrier 
of the Alps, which divide it from France, Swisserland, and 
Germany. I he length of Italy from mount Rosa, the 
highest summit of the Italian Alps, to the Cape de Leuca, 
is about 670 British miles ; while the medial breadth be¬ 
tween the Adriatic and Mediterranean is about 100 ; but 
from the Adige, the recent limit of Austrian power, to the 
eastern frontiers of the new French departments of Limap 




214 


ITALIAN STATES. 


and Mont Blanc (formerly Savoy), the breadth is about 200 
miles. The original population of the south consisted of 
Pelasgi from the Peloponnesus ; the northern part of Illyri¬ 
ans, who were succeeded by German Gauls ; and the Etrus¬ 
cans of the centre are said to have been of Lydian extract. 
The Romans seem to derive their origin from the early 
Greek colonies ; and their language was regarded as an 
iEolic dialect of the Greek. It is almost superfluous to 
add, that the religion is the Roman Catholic. The present 
population of Italy, with the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, 
cannot be estimated at more than 13,000,000. The king¬ 
dom of Naples and Sicily contains about 6,000,000 ; the 
central part about 3,000,000 ; and the northern about four. 
The manners, customs, and dialects are various and dis¬ 
cordant, though the general language be the Italian, es¬ 
teemed the purest in Tuscany, while the enunciation is 
most perfect at Rome. 

Face of the Country. Italy presents a va¬ 
riety of scenery, decorated with noble architecture, as 
villas, venerable remains of ancient art, amidst a climate 
generally serene, though liable to violent rains. In the 
north the sublime scenery of the Alps is contrasted with 
fertile plains. In the centre there are many marshes 
and standing waters, which occasion a pernicious distempe- 
rature of the air. A great part of the kingdom of Naples 
is mountainous ; but the country generally beautiful ; yet 
in addition to the fiery eruptions of Vesuvius and Etna, it 
is exposed to the terrible effect of frequent earthquakes, 
and the enervating sirocco. 

Ri vers. Italy is intersected with rivers in almost 
every direction, of which the Po is by far the most large 
and extensive. This noble river, called by the ancients 
Padus and Eridanus, rises on the very confines of France 
and Italy. Thus descending from the centre of the west¬ 
ern Alps, it passes to the N. E. of Saluzzo, to Turin ; 
receiving even in this short space many rivers, as the 
Varitta, Maira, and Grana from the S. and from the N. 
the Felice, Sagon, and others. After leaving the walls of 
Turin, the Po receives innumerable rivers and rivulets 
from the Alps in the N. and the Apennines in the S. 
Among the former may be named the Doria, the Tesino, 
the Adda, the Oglio, the Mincio. From the south the Po 
first receives the copious Alpine river Tanaro, itself swel- 


ITALIAN STATES. 


215 


led by the Belba, Bormida, and other streams. The course 
of the Po may be comparatively estimated at about 300 
British miles. The numerous tributary rivers, from the 
Alps and Apennines, bring down so much sand and gravel, 
that the bed of the Po has in modern times been consider¬ 
ably raised, so that in many places banks of thirty feet in 
height are necessary to preserve the country from inun¬ 
dation. Hence hydraulics have been much studied in the 
north of Italy ; and the numerous canals of irrigation de¬ 
light and instruct the traveller. 

The other rivers of the north of Italy, as the Adige, the 
Brenta, the Piavi, and the Tagliamento, must now rather 
be regarded as Austrian streams. 

In the centre first appears the Arno, which rises in the 
Apennines, and flows by Florence and Pisa into the gulph 
of Genoa. The Tiber, an immortal stream, is by far the 
most considerable in the middle, or south of Italy, rising 
near the source of the Arno, S. E. of St. Marino, and pass¬ 
ing by Perugia, and Rome, to the Mediterranean, which 
it joins after a course of about 150 British miles. 

Lakes. Italy contains many beautiful lakes, par¬ 
ticularly in the northern division. The Lago Maggiore, 
is about twenty-seven British miles in length, by three of 
medial breadth. This lake formerly adjoined to the Mi¬ 
lanese territory, and contains the beautiful Boromean isles, 
celebrated by many travellers. Still farther to the east is 
the lake of Como, which is about thirty-two British miles in 
length, but the medial breadth not above two and a half. 
Yet farther to the east is the noble Lago di Garda, an ex¬ 
panse of about thirty British miles in length by eight in 
breadth. There are few other lakes in Italy, but they are 
of smaller dimensions. 

Mountains. The most important mountains of 
Italy are the Alps, already in a great measure described, 
under the article of Swisserland. The maritime Alps rise 
from the sea to the west of Oneglia, and are succeeded by 
other denominations, extending due north to rnont Blanc, 
the ancient boundary of Savoy. The most remarkable 
passage through the maritime Alps is the Col de Tende, 
and mount Cenis is a noted passage to Turin. In general 
the western Alps rise, in successive elevation, from the 
sea to Mont Blanc. From Mont Blanc the grand chain of 
the Italian Alps bends N. E. presenting the high summits 


$16 


ITALIAN STATES. 


of the great St. Bernard, mount Maudit, and mount Rosa, 
the last nearly approaching Mont Blanc itself in height. 

From mount Rosa this grand chain continues its progress 
N. E. by Simplon, &c. through the country of the Grisons 
to the glaciers of Tyrol, terminating in the Salzian Alps. 

The next grand chain of Italian mountains is that of the 
Apennines, which are at first a branch of the Alps, sepa¬ 
rating the plains of Piedmont from the sea. They begin 
nearOrmea, in that high ridge which now forms the boun¬ 
dary of the French department of the maritime Alps, and 
stretch without any interruption along both sides of the 
gulph of Genoa, at no great distance from the sea. In the 
south of the territory of Modena, they proceed almost 
due east to the centre of Italy; thence S. E.'to its extremities, 
generally approaching nearer to the Adriatx than to the 
Mediterranean. 

Having thus briefly considered the chief ridges of Italian 
mountains, those sublime features of the country the vol¬ 
canoes must not be omitted. Vesuvius is a conic detach¬ 
ed mountain, about 3,600 feet high. The terrors of an 
eruption, the subterranean thunders, the thickening smoke, 
the ruddy flames, the stony showers ejected to a prodigi¬ 
ous height, amidst the corruscationsof native lightning, the 
throes of the mountain, the eruption of the lava, descend¬ 
ing in a horrid and copious stream of destruction, have ex¬ 
ercised the power of many writers, but far exceed the ut¬ 
most energy of description. 

Yet Vesuvius, placed by the side of Etna, would seem 
a small ejected hill, the whole circuit of its base not ex¬ 
ceeding 30 miles, while Etna covers a space of 180, and its 
height above the sea is computed at about 11,000 feet. 
This enormous mass is surrounded by smaller mountains, 
some of which equal Vesuvius in size ; and while the lava 
of the latter may devolve its stream for seven miles, Etna 
will emit a liquid fire thirty miles in length. The crater 
of Vesuvius never exceeds half a mile in circumference, 
while that of Etna is commonly three, and sometimes six 
miles. Such is the height of Etna that the eruptions rarely 
attain the summit, but more usually break out at the sides. 
Near the crater begins the region of perpetual snow and 
ice ; which is followed by the woody region; consisting of 
oaks, beeches, firs, and pines, while the upper is almost des¬ 
titute of vegetation. 


ITALIAN STATES. 


217 * 

V egetable and Animal Productions. Among 
the trees, besides the common ones of Britain, we find the 
olive, the date plum, the storax tree, the bead tree, the al¬ 
mond, the pomegranate, the azarole plum, the pyracantha, 
the carob tree, the ilex, the pistachia, the manna-tree, the 
cypress, the date palm, the lemon, the orange, the fig, and 
the vine. 

In the southern parts, cotton, rice, and the sugar cane 
indicate the fertility of the soil, and the warmth of the cli¬ 
mate ; and the fields, and pastures, as far as they have been 
examined, bear a striking resemblance in their native pro¬ 
ducts to those which have been already mentioned, as en¬ 
livening the southern provinces of Spain. 

The Italian horses are of little reputation. The cowfc 
of the Lodezan, where the noted cheese is now made, which 
was formerly produced near Parma, are described by Mr. 
Young as generally of a blood-red colour, long, lank, and 
ill made. The buffalo is in Europe almost peculiar to 
Italy ; an animal, though tame, of ferocious aspect, and as 
different from the bull, as the ass is from the horse. In 
manners he somewhat resembles the hog, being fond of 
wallowing in mud, his flesh is coarse, and his hide, though 
light, is so firm as to have supplied the buff coat, or armour 
of the seventeenth century. Originally as is supposed from 
Africa, he is little adapted to any cold climate. The mar¬ 
mot, and the ibex arc also reckoned among the animals of 
the Apennines; and the crested porcupine is esteemed pe¬ 
culiar to the south of Italy. 


THE SOUTHERN PART OF ITALY. 


Najiles and Sicily , with the adjacent Isles. 

Naples and Sicily. THIS division comprises the 
kingdom of Naples and Sicily ; being divided from the cen¬ 
tral part chiefly by an arbitrary line ; nor has nature indeed 
marked any precise distinction, except some rivers were 
assumed as boundaries, towards the Mediterranean and 
Adriatic. Sicily is about 170 British miles in length, by 70 
of medial breadth: tVhile this part of Italy exceeds 300 

T 


ITALIAN STATES. 


2V8 

miles in length by 100 in breadth. Square miles 29,824, 
with six millions of inhabitants. 

Though the religion be the Roman Catholic, the Inqui¬ 
sition has been carefully excluded. Few men of distin¬ 
guished genius have recently appeared in this portion of 
Italy, which is overrun with priests and lawyers: but among 
the latter Giannone has distinguished himself by his spi¬ 
rited history of his country. There are no less than 20 
archbishoprics, and 125 episcopal sees ; but no university 
of any reputation. The ecclesiastics are computed at 
200,000 ; and it is supposed that about one-half of the lands 
is in their possession. The government is nearly despotic. 
The laws are contained in the Codex Carolinus published 
in 1754 . The political importance is inconsiderable. 

The chief city is Naples, esteemed, after Constantinople, 
the most beautiful capital in the world: the inhabitants are 
computed at 380 , 000 . Palermo in Sicily is supposed to 
contain 130 , 000 . Messina was nearly destroyed by an 
earthquake, 1783 ; but Bari is said to contain 30,000 souls, 
and Catanea 26 , 000 . Besides excellent wines, oranges, 
olives, rice and flax, this kingdom abounds in cattle ; and 
some parts are celebrated for the produce of manna and 
saffron. The manufactures, particularly those of silk and 
Avoollen, date from the reign of Ferdinand I. of Arragon ; 
and these, with the native products, constitute the chief ar¬ 
ticles of trade. Iron manufactures have been recently in¬ 
stituted near Naples, but the mines and the agriculture are 
alike neglected ; and Sicily, anciently so fertile in grain, is 
now of little account. The revenue is computed at 1 , 400 , 000 /. 
sterling; and the army at 40 , 000 . There are about four 
ships of the line, and four frigates. The mountains have 
been already mentioned in the general description of Italy, 
and the rivers are inconsiderable. The natural curiosities 
of these regions are numerous and interesting, independent 
of the grand volcanic appearances. About six miles from 
Girgenti, and very remote from Etna, there is a singular 
volcano, which in 1777 darted forth a high column of pot¬ 
ter’s earth of which there are continual ebullitions from 
about sixty small apertures. Spallanzani has explained the 
noted wonders of Scylla and Charybdis; the former being 
a lofty rock on the Calabrian shore, with some caverns at 
the bottom, which by the agitation of the waves emit 
sounds resembling the barking of dogs. The onlv danger 


ITALIAN STATES. 


215 


is when the current and winds are in opposition, so that 
vessels are impelled towards the rock. Charybdis is not 
a whirlpool, or involving vortex, but a spot where the waves 
are greatly agitated by pointed rocks, and the depth does 
not exceed 500 feet. The chief islands in the neighbour¬ 
hood of Italy are the isles of Li pari, the small isles off the 
gulph of the ancient Caprea, the isle of Ischia, Italian Pen- 
dataria, the small isle of San Stcphano,and the three Ponzian 
isles. The isles of Malta and Gozo are of far more con¬ 
sequence. They are rocky and barren, not producing 
grain sufficient for half the consumption of a thin popula¬ 
tion ; but may in the hands of the English prove a valuable 
acquisition. Malta is about 50 British miles in circumfer¬ 
ence, and is supposed to contain 60,000 inhabitants. The 
isle of Gozo is about half the extent, and is rather fertile, 
the population being computed at 3000. 

These two islands are possessed by the British, and are 
of so much importance to the nation, that the minister who 
surrenders them, while France has a port on the Mediter¬ 
ranean, will deserve to loose his head. 

THE CENTRAL PART OF ITALY. 

Dominions of the Church.—Tuscany .—Lucca,-St. Marino. 

Piombino , and the Isle of Jilba. 

THIS portion comprehends the dominions of the 
Church, and the grand duchy, now kingdom of Tuscany ; 
with a few diminutive states, as the republics of Lucca and 
St. Marino, the principality of Piombino, and the small 
-portion of territory around Orbitello belonging to the king¬ 
dom of Naples. 

The territory belonging to the Pope reaches from near 
Pesaro to beyond Terracina. By the treaty' of Carapo 
Formio in 1797, confirmed by that of Luneville in 1801, 
the provinces of Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna - were 
ceded to the Cisalpine republic, a state lately erected by, 
* and dependent on France. The pontiff is elected by 
the cardinals, a kind of chapter consisting nominally of 
priests and deacons, but in effect of opulent ecclesiastics, 
yvlio are elevated to this dignity by their services to the 
church, by family connections, or by princely recommen¬ 
dation. 


,220 


ITALIAN STATES. 


Romt is supposed to contain 162,800 inhabitants: and 
Ancona 20,000. The revenue arising from the papal ter¬ 
ritory was computed at about 350,000/. sterling; but by 
exactions in foreign countries was raised to about 800,000/. 
Yet there was a large debt, bearing eight per cent, interest, 
a sure proof of the want of industry and prosperity. 

The grand duchy, now kingdom of Tuscany, has long 
been celebrated for the arts; and Florence is regarded as 
the Athens of modern Italy. This principality is about 
120 British miles in length by 90 in breadth ; but on 7,040 
square miles contains a population of about 1,250,000. 
This charming country has been granted to a prince of 
Spain, who wields his tributary sceptre of Etruria under 
the protection of the French republic. The revenue is 
computed at about half a million sterling, but the forces do 
not exceed 6 or 8,000. Tuscany is one of the most beau¬ 
tiful and fertile regions of Italy, with a temperate and 
healthy climate. It abounds in corn and cattle, and pro¬ 
duces excellent wines and fruit. Florence contains about 
80,000 inhabitants, and Livorno (corrupted by our mariners 
to Leghorn) 45,000. The manufactures of silk and velvet 
were formerly celebrated, and still maintain reputation. 

The small republic of Lucca is supposed to contain 
120,000 people, on 288 square miles ; of which Lucca holds 
about 40,000. It assumed independence in 1370, and in the 
recent revolutions of Italy this state adopted a constitution 
similar to the French. The Lucanese are the most indus¬ 
trious people of Italy, and no spot of ground is neglected, 
the hills being covered with vines, olives, chesnut, and 
mulberry trees, while the meadows near the coast nourish 
numerous cattle. Oil and silk are the chief exports of 
Lucca. The diminutive republic of St. Marino has been 
celebrated by many able writers. The inhabitants of the 
village and mountain are computed at 5000. It is sur¬ 
rounded by the dominions of the Pope, and claims his pro¬ 
tection. 

The principality of Piombino, consisting of a small por¬ 
tion of the Italian «hore, and the opposite isle of Elba, has 
recently been yielded to the French republic. Piombino 
is a small neglected town, the princes having generally re¬ 
sided at Rome. The isle of Elba is about nine miles in 
length, and three in breadth ; and has been remarkable 
from early antiquity for its metallic productions, particu- 


ITALIAN STATES. 


221 


iarly beautiful ores of iron, often crystallized, and mingled 
with native Prussian blue. 

Ragusa, another small commercial republic, though si¬ 
tuated on the eastern shore of the Adriatic, is often consi¬ 
dered as an Italian state. It has a population of about 
56,000, on 352 square miles. The religion is the Catholic, 
and the speech the Slavonic, but most of the inhabitants 
speak Italian. It is an archbishopric, with six suffragans, 
and its commerce is considerable, as it supplies the Turks 
with several kinds of merchandize and ammunition. 


THE NORTHERN PART OF ITALY. 

Piedmont.—Milan. — Mantua.—Parma and Placentia. — Mo¬ 
dena.—Genoa. 

THIS largest division formerly comprised the extensive 
territories subject to Venice, and the king of Sardinia, with 
Milan and Mantua, appanages of the house of Austria, the 
principalities of Parma and Modena, and the long moun¬ 
tainous strip belonging to the Genoese. But the Venetian 
possessions to the river Adige, have now become subject to 
Austria; France has seized on the greatest part of Piedmont 
and Savoy, with the county of Nice, and the small principa¬ 
lity of Monaco. Parma and Placentia were consigned to a 
Spanish prince, but are now under the direction of French 
commissioners. The state of Genoa with some of the Im¬ 
perial fiefs, constitute the new Ligurian republic, under the 
influence of France ; and the remainder together with the 
provinces ceded by the Pope, constitute the Cisalpine re¬ 
public, also at the disposal of France. 

The most extensive province of this division is Piedmont, 
about 150 English miles in length by 100 of medial breadth. 
While the revenue of Sardinia was estimated at 1,08 5*,000/. 
Piedmont contributed 953,750/. Savoy 87,500/. and Sardi¬ 
nia only 43,750/. This delightful province enjoys a mild 
and pure air, and distinguished fertility of soil, the plains 
producing wheat, maize, rice, with some olives and wine, 
and the pasturages abound with cattle. AroundXnrin and 
through a great part of the province, artificial irrigation, or 
the watering of meadows, is practised with great assiduity 
and success. The copper mines in the duchy of Aosta are 

T 2 


222 


ITALIAN STATES. 


numerous ; and in some places this metal is accompanied 
with antimony, arsenic, and zinc. 

The chief city of Piedmont is Turin, supposed to contain 
more than 80,000 inhabitants, with an university founded 
in 1405 by Arnadeo duke of Savoy, this city having been 
subject to the family since A. D. 1097 . Vercelli is said to 
contain 20,000 ; and Alessandria 12,000. The king of Sar¬ 
dinia used to maintain an army of about 40 , 000 . The ex¬ 
ports consist of silk which was chiefly manufactured at 
Lyons, some hemp, and large flocks of cattle. 

The island of* Sardinia used to be considered as an ap¬ 
pendage of Piedmont. It has been shamefully neglected 
by the government; but being now the sole remnant of the 
possessions formerly annexed to the Sardinian crown, will 
no doubt be benefited by the presence of its sovereign. 

The Cisalpine republic is little else than a province of 
France. It comprises the provinces of Romagna, Bologna, 
and Ferrara as far as the Po, the duchy of Modena and Mas- 
sa Carrara, the Imperial fiefs of Villa-franca, Ulla, and 
Fcsdi Nuovo; the duchies of Milan and Mantua, the Lu- 
meliine, Upper and Lower Navarese, and Y al de Sesia ; 
the Vaiteline and all the former Venetian territory W. of 
the Adige, including the Bergamese, Brescian, and part 
of the Veronese. We will give a sketch of the princi¬ 
pal divisions. 

Of these the most important is the fertile duchy of Mi¬ 
lan, said to contain, on 2,432 square miles, a population of 
1 , 116 , 850 . Of the chief city of Milan the inhabitants are 
computed at about 120,000. The revenues of this duchy 
are computed at about 300 , 000 /. At Pavia is an university 
of great repute, the professors having much distinguished 
themselves in natural history. It is regarded as the first 
in Italy. There are manufactures of wool and silk, but the 
latter is inferior to that of Piedmont: there are also nu¬ 
merous workmen in gold, silver, embroidery, steel, and in 
crystal, agate, aventurine, and other stones, so that the 
country swarms with artizans. The irrigation of the Mi¬ 
lanese Mr. Young represents as a stupendous effort of in¬ 
dustry, and the canals for this purpose are mentioned as 
early as the eleventh century; some of them being more 
than 30 miles long, and near 50 feet wide. The price of land 
is near 100/. the acre, and yields about three per cent, in- 



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ITALIAN STATES. 


223 


terest. The cattle, dairies, and cheese are excellent; but 
the sheep few and bad. 

The small duchy of Mantua had been subject to Austria 
since the year 1707 , and was ruled by the governor-general 
of the Milanese. The capital stands on a lake formed by 
the Mincio, and was formerly supposed to contain 50,000 
inhabitants, now reduced to about 12,000 ; the position and 
fortifications render it a place of great strength. 

The duchy of Modena is a remnant of the power of the 
celebrated family of Este, who also possessed the adjacent 
country of Ferrara. It contains about 320,000 souls, and 
the city of Modena 30 , 000 ; the revenue was 140 , 000 /. 
The soil resembles that of the duchy of Parma. The breed «* 
off sheep is neglected. It is remarkable that in digging 
wells near Modena, at a certain depth, a particular stratum 
is found, which being passed, the water gushes up as from 
a subterranean lake or river. 

The territories of Parma and Placentia have been con¬ 
joined for many ages; and have lately been occupied by the 
French. The population is computed at 300,000 ; revenue 
175 , 000 /. Parma is a considerable city with some manu¬ 
factures, and an academy of painting. Both Parma and 
Placentia have universities. The soil is a rich sandy or 
gravelly loam, with fine pastures; and the Parmesan cheese 
now made at Lodi in the Milanese, has been celebrated for 
many centuries. 

The Imperial fiefs, and smaller states in this part of 
Italy, would little merit description, especially in the pre¬ 
sent uncertainty with regard to their final destination. 
This account shall therefore close with the republic of 
Genoa, consisting of a long mountainous tract, formerly 
noted lor the acuteness and treachery of the Ligurians its 
inhabitants. The papal power is here little venerated, the 
people being immersed in business, and receiving monied 
heretics with open arms. The population of the territory 
is computed at 400,000; of the city at 80 , 000 . The troops, 
including the .country militia, may amount to 30,000 ; but 
the once powerful fleets have sunk to a few gallics. The 
air is pure and salubrious, and there are excellent fruits and 
vegetables; but the grain is not sufficient for the consump¬ 
tion. The manufactures are chiefly of silk and velvet. 


ASIA. 


Extent. THIS great division of the earth ex¬ 
tends in length from the Hellespont to what is called the 
East Cape; that is from about the 26° of longitude, east 
from London, into the other hemisphere to near 190 de¬ 
grees of east longitude, or 170° west from London ; be¬ 
ing no less than 164°, or (taking the degree at a medial la¬ 
titude) more than 6500 geographical miles. From the 
southern cape of Malacca to the cape of Cevero Vostochnoi, 
which braves the ice of the Arctic ocean, the breadth ex¬ 
tends from about 2° of northern latitude to about 77°, or 
nearly 4500 geographical miles. If, for the sake of a rude 
and merely comparative calculation, one-sixth part be added 
for the difference between the statute and geographical 
mile, the length of Asia in British miles would be about 
7583, and the breadth 5250. 

It is now well known that Asia is limited, on the east, by 
a strait which divides it from America, of about 40 miles, 
and which, in honour of the discoverer, is called Beering’s 
Strait. The northern and southern boundaries are the 
Arctic and Indian oceans, in which last many large islands, 
particularly that of New Holland, now more classically 
styled by some Australasia, affords a vast additional extent 
to this quarter of the globe. The western limits of Asia 
are marked by the eastern limits of Europe. 

Original Population. The population of 
Asia is by all authors allowed to be wholly primitive and 
original; if we except that of the Techuks or Tchuktchi, 
who, by the Russian travellers and Mr. Tooke, are supposed 
to have passed from the opposite coast of America. With 




ASIA. 


225" 


u few trifling exceptions Asia presents a prodigious ori¬ 
ginal population, as may be judged from the following table, 
which will be found more clear than any prolix discussion 
on the subject. 


LINNAEAN TABLE OF THE NATIONS AND LANGUAGES 

IN ASIA. 



Ordo. 

GeJius. 

Species. 



'Assyrians. 

Chaldee. 

I. 

Assyrians.-* 

Arabians. 

Hebrew, See. 


1 

Egyptians. 

r 

Armenians. The 


! 

Persians. 

Persi and Zend are 

II 

Scythians.< 

Scythians, 

cognate with the 

intra et extra 

Gothic, Greek, Sc 



Imaum, See. 

Latin, according 




to Sir W. Jones. 

III. 

Sarmats. 

y Medes. 

[ Parthians. 

Georgians. 

Circassians. 

IV. 

C Seres. 

^ Indi. 

Hindoos. 

Northern Sc South¬ 
ern, See. 

V. 

Sinae. 

| Chinese. 

These have a Tata- 

[ Japanese. 

ric form or face. 


The great share of population which Europe has re¬ 
ceived from Asia will appear from the following little 
table. 


PRIMAEVAL INHABITANTS. 

Ordo. Ge7ius. Species . 

f Irish. Erse, Manks. 

I. Celts. 4 Welch. Cornish. 

(^Armorican. 

[Finlanders. Permians or Biarmians. 

II. Fins (chief god ! Esthonians. Livonians. 

Yummala.) j Laplanders. Votiacs Sc Chermisses. 

(^Hungarians. Voguls Sc Ostiacs. 



226 


ASIA. 


COLONIES FROM ASIA. 


Or do. Genus. Species. 

["Icelanders, Norwegians. 

III. Scythians or GothsJ Swedes, Danes. 

(Odin.) | Germans. Swiss, Frisic. 

^English. Flemish, Dutch. 

Poles. Heruli. 


IV. Sarmats or Slavons 
( Perun.) 


I 


Russians. 
F Kossacs. 


Vendi. 

Lettes. 


The inhabitants of France, Italy, and Spain are also of 
Asiatic origin; and speak corrupted Roman, which, like 
the Greek, is a polished dialect of the Gothic, according to 
Sir William Jones and other able antiquaries. The He¬ 
ruli, Wends, and Lettes, used mixed and imperfect dia¬ 
lects of the Slavonic. Critical Review, vol. xxvii. p. 129. 

Seas. Though Asia cannot vie with Europe in 
the advantages of inland seas, yet, in addition to a share of 
the Mediterranean, it possesses the Red Sea, the Arabian 
Sea, and gulph of Persia ; the bays of Bengal and Nankin; 
and other gulphs, which diversify the coasts much more 
than those of Africa or America, and have doubtless con¬ 
tributed greatly to the early civilization of this celebrated 
division of the earth. 

The Red Sea, or the Arabian gulph of antiquity, consti¬ 
tutes the grand natural division between Asia and Africa ; 
but its advantages have chiefly been felt by the latter, which 
is entirely destitute of other inland seas ; Egypt and Abys¬ 
sinia, two of the most civilized countries in that division, 
having derived great benefits from t-his celebrated gulph, 
which from the straits of Babelmandel to Suez extends 
about 21°, or 1470 British miles; terminating not in two 
equal branches, as delineated in old maps, but in an exten¬ 
sive western branch, while the eastern ascends little beyond 
the parallel of Mount Sinai. 

The Persian gulph is another noted inland sea, about 
half the length of the former, being the grand receptacle 
of those celebrated rivers the Euphrates and the Tigris. 

The other gulphs do not afford such strong features of 
what are properly termed inland seas; if the Euxine be ex¬ 
cepted, which has already been briefly described in the 
general survey of Europe. But the vast extent of Asia 


ASIA. 


227 


eonlains seas totally detached, and of a different descriptio 
from any that occur in Europe, or other quarters of the 
globe. Such is the Caspian sea, extending about 10°, or 
700 miles in length, and from 100 to 200 in breadth. 
Besides herrings, salmon, and other fish, with porpoises 
and seals, this sea produces sterlet, and great numbers of 
excellent sturgeon, which last in particular ascend the 
Volga, and supply kaviar and other articles of exportation. 
The best haven in the Caspian is that of Baku: that of 
Derbent is rocky ; and that of Ensili, or Sinsili, not com¬ 
modious, though one of the chief ports of trade. 

About 100 miles to the east of the Caspian is the sea or 
lake of Aral, which is about 200 miles in length, and 70 
miles in breadth. This sea being surrounded with sandy 
deserts, has been little explored; but it is salt like the Cas¬ 
pian, and there are many small saline lakes in the vicinity. 

Another remarkable detached sea is that of Baikal in 
Siberia, or Asiatic Russia, extending from about the fifty- 
first to the fifty-fifth degree of north latitude, being about 
350 British miles in length but its greatest breadth not 
above 35. The water is fresh and transparent, yet of a 
green or sea tinge, commonly frozen in the latter end of 
December, and clear of ice in May. The Baikal is, at 
particular periods, subject to violent and unaccountable 
storms, whence, as terror is the parent of superstition, 
probably springs the Russian name of Svetoie More, or the 
Holy Sea. 

The religions, governments, rivers, mountains, See. of 
this quarter of the globe will be illustrated in the accounts 
of the several countries into which it is divided. 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


« 

Extent. THIS region extends from the shores 
of the Egean sea, or Archipelago, to the confines of Persia ; 
a space of about 1050 British miles. The boundaries to¬ 
wards Persia are rather ideal than natural, though some¬ 
what marked by the mountains of Ararat and Elwend. In 
the north the Turkish territories are now divided from the 
Russian by the river Cuban, and the chain of Caucasus ; 
in the south they extend to the junction of the Tigris and 
the Euphrates, which last river, for a considerable space, 
divides the Turkish possessions from those of the Arabs. 
From the river Cuban to the junction of the Tigris and 
Euphrates, may be about 1100 British miles. 

Divisions. This extensive territory, which in it¬ 
self would constitute an empire, could it resume its pris¬ 
tine population, is divided into nine or ten provinces, viz. 
Natolia, Caraminia, Eyraco Arabic,, or Chaldea, Diarbec, 
or Mesopotamia, Turcomania or Armenia, Curdistan or 
Assyria. Georgia, including Mingrelia, Imaretta, and part 
of Circassia, Amasia, Aladulia, Syria with Palestine. 

These provinces are subdivided into governments arbi¬ 
trarily administered by pashas. 

Original Population. The original population 
of these regions consisted chiefly of Scythic nations, ming¬ 
led with a few Assyrians, from the south. At present the 
ruling language is the Turkish, next to which may be 
placed the modern Greek ; but the Arabic, Syrian, Persian, 
and Armenian, with various dialects used by the tribes on 
the Black sea, indicate the diversity of population. 




TURKEY IN ASIA. 


229 


Historical Epochs. The chief epochs of Turk¬ 
ish history have already been mentioned, in describing 
their European possessions. 

Antiquities. The antiquities of Asiatic Turkey, 
once the chosen seat of the arts, are numerous and im¬ 
portant, but have been so repeatedly described as to have 
become trivial themes, even to the general reader. The 
most splendid ruins are those of Palmyra, or Tadmor, in 
the desert, about 150 miles to the S. E. of Aleppo, at the 
northern extremity of the sandy wastes of Arabia. 

JBalbec, the ancient Heliopolis, is about 50 miles to the 
N. W. ot Damascus, the most remarkable ruin being that 
of a temple, supposed to have been dedicated to the sun. 
Recent investigation has disclosed another remarkable 
scene of antiquity, in the site and celebrated plain of Troy. 
The tombs of remote antiquity having been constructed 
like the large barrows of our ancestors, in the lasting form 
of small hills, they withstood the assaults of time, or ava¬ 
rice ; and late travellers indicate, with some plausibility, that 
of Hector, behind the site of Troy ; those of Achilles, and 
Patroclus on the shore ; and a few others of the Homeric 
heroes. 

Population. The Turkish empire in Asia is 
estimated at 470,400 square miles ; and the population at 
ten millions ; which, allowing eight for the European part, 
will render the total 18,000,000. 

Manners and Customs. In general the most 
striking feature of manners and customs, in the Turkish 
empire, is that half the people may be considered as some¬ 
what civilized, while the other half are pastoral wanderers, 
ranging over extensive wastes. This laxity of government 
renders travelling very unsafe, and has proved a great im¬ 
pediment to any exact geographical knowledge of these 
regions. Under a wise and energetic government industry 
and the arts might again visit this classical territory 

Cities and Towns. The capital of the Turkish 
empire has been already described. Next in dignity and 
importance is the city of Haleb, or Aleppo, supposed to 
contain about 250,000 inhabitants. This city is construct¬ 
ed with some elegance, and the tall cypress trees, contrast¬ 
ed with the white minarets of numerous mosques, give it 
a picturesque appearance. The buildings and population 
seem to have been on the increase^ but the adjacent villages 


330 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


are deserted. The chief languages are the Syrian and 
Arabic. The manufactures of silk and cotton are in a 
flourishing condition, and large caravans frequently arrive 
from Bagdad and Bassora, charged with the products of 
Persia and India; Consuls from various European powers 
reside here, to attend the interests of the respective nations. 

Damascus is supposed to contain about 180,000 souls. 
It was formerly celebrated for the manufacture of sabres 
which seem to have been constructed by a method now 
lost, of alternate thin layers of iron and steel, so as to bend 
even to the hilt without breaking, while the edge would 
divide the firmest mail. The manufactures now consist of 
silk and cotton, and excellent soap. From the Mediterra¬ 
nean are imported metals and broad cloths; and the cara¬ 
vans of Bagdad bring Persian and Indian articles. This city 
also increases, the Pashalik of Damascus is esteemed the 
first in Asia. 

Smyrna may be regarded as the third city in Asiatic 
Turkey, containing about 120,000 souls. This flourishing 
seat of European commerce is the chief mart of the Levant 
trade, but the frequent visits of the pestilence greatly im¬ 
pede its prosperity. 

Prusa is a beautiful city, in a romantic situation at the 
northern bottom of mount Olympus. By Tournefort’s 
computation of families, the inhabitants may be about 

60,000. 

Angora may contain 80,000 inhabitants. The trade is 
chiefly in yarn, of which our shalloons are made ; and in 
their own manufacture of Angora stuffs, made chiefly of 
the fine hair of a particular breed of goats. 

Tokat is also a flourishing place. The inhabitants are 
computed at 60,000. The situation is singular, amidst 
rugged and perpendicular rocks of marble, and the streets 
are paved, which is a rare circumstance in the Levant. 
Silk and leather are manufactures of Tokat; but the chief 
is that of copper utensils, which are sent to Constantinople, 
and even to Egypt. 

Basra, or Bassora, on the estuary of the Euphrates and 
Tigris, contains 50,000 inhabitants, and is of great com¬ 
mercial consequence, being frequented by numerous ves¬ 
sels from Europe and Asia, and the seat of an English 
consul. 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


231 


The great and romantic Bagdad, the seat of the Califs, 
and the scene oi many eastern fictions, has now dwindled 
into a town of about 20,000 inhabitants. Not far to the 
south are some ruins of the celebrated Babylon, which have 
been ably illustrated in a recent work of Major Rennell. 

Many an important city of antiquity has sunk into a 
village, and even the village often into a mass of rubbish, 
under the destructive domination of the Turks. The an¬ 
cient and celebrated city of Jerusalem is reduced to a 
mean town, chiefly existing by the piety of pilgrims. 

Manufactures. The chief manufactures of Asi¬ 
atic Turkey have been already incidentally mentioned. 
These with rhubarb, and several other drugs, may be re¬ 
garded as the chief articles of commerce. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of Asia 
Minor has always been considered as excellent. There 
is a peculiar softness and serenity in the air, not perceiv¬ 
able on the European side of the Archipelago. The heat 
of the summer is considerably tempered by the numerous 
chains of high mountains, some of which are said to be 
covered with perpetual snow. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
general appearance of Asiatic Turkey may be regarded 
as mountainous; but intermingled with large and beau¬ 
tiful plains, which, instead of being covered with rich 
crops of grain, are pastured by the numerous flocks and 
herds of the Turcomans. The soil, as may be expected, 
is extremely various; but that of Asia Minor is chiefly 
a deep clay ; and wheat, barley, and durra, form the 
chief products of agriculture. But excellent grapes and 
olives abound; and the southern provinces are fertile in 
dates. In Syria the agriculture is in the most deplorable 
condition. 

Rivers. The principal river of Asiatic Turkey is, 
beyond all comparison, the Euphrates, which rises from 
the mountains of Armenia, a few miles to the N. E. of 
Erzeron; and chiefly pursues a S. W. direction to Semisat, 
where it would fall into the Mediterranean, if not pre¬ 
vented by a high ridge of mountains. In this part of its 
course the Euphrates is joined by the Morad from the east, 
a stream almost doubling in length that of Euphrates ; so 
that the latter river might more justly be said to spring 
from mount Ararat, about 160 British miles to the east of 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


»o 

•v U 

the imputed source. At Semisat, the ancient Sawiosata, 
this noble river assumes a southerly direction; then runs 
an extensive course to the S, E. and after receiving the 
Tigris, falls by two or three mouths into the gulph of Per¬ 
sia. The comparative course of the Euphrates may be 
estimated at about 1400 British miles. 

Next in importance is the Tigris, which rises to the 
north of the Medan, about 150 miles south from the sources 
of the Euphrates, and pursues nearly a regular direction 
S. E. till it join the Euphrates below Korna, about 60 miles 
to the north of Bassora ; after a comparative course of 
about 800 miles. The Euphrates and the Tigris are both 
navigable for a considerable distance from the sea. 

The third river in Asiatic Turkey is that called by the 
Turks Kizil Irmak, the celebrated Halys of antiquity, ri¬ 
sing in mount Taurus not far from Erekli, but by other ac¬ 
counts more to the east, and pursuing a winding course to 
the north, nearly across the whole- of Asia Minor, till it join 
the Euxine sea on the west of the gulph of Sansoun. The 
river Sacaria,the ancient Sangarius,or Sangaris, rises about 
50 miles to the south of Angora, and running to the N. 
W. joins the Euxine, about 70 miles to the east of Con¬ 
stantinople. 

In the next rank may be placed the classical river of 
Meander, rising to the north of the ancient city of Apamia, 
and running, in a winding stream, about 250 British miles. 
It is called by the Turks Boyue Minder, or the great 
Mse'ander, to distinguish it from a small tributary stream, 
which resembles it in mazes. The Minder, not far from 
its mouth, is about 100 feet broad; with a swift, muddy, 
and extremely deep current, having received a considera¬ 
ble accession of waters from the lake of My us. 

The Sarabat, or ancient Hermus, renowned for its gold¬ 
en sands, joins the Archipelago about 90 British miles to 
the north of the Minder, after a course of similar length. 

The other rivers of Asia Minor are far more inconsider¬ 
able, though many of them be celebrated in classical his¬ 
tory and poetry. 

The chief river of Syria is the Orontes, now called Oron 
or Osi, rising about 80 miles to the N. of Damascus, and 
running nearly due north till it suddenly turns S. E. near 
Antioch, after which it scon joins the Mediterranean. 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


233 


Lakes. Asiatic Turkey also contains numerous 
lakes. That of Van in the north of Kurdistan, is the most 
remarkable, being about 80 British miles in length from 
N.,E. to S. W. and about 40 in breadth: it is said to abound 
with fish. 

In Syria, what is called the Dead Sea, may be regarded 
as a lake of about 50 miles in length, and 12 or 13 in 
breadth. The lake of Rackama, to the south of Hilla and 
the ancient Babylon, is about 30 miles in length, and flows 
into the Euphrates. 

Towards the centre of Asia Minor there is a remarkable 
saline lake, about 70 miles in length, and a mile or two in 
breadth, being the Tatta or Palus Salsa of D’Anville’s an¬ 
cient geography. 

Numerous other small lakes appear in Natolia, among 
which may be particularly mentioned that of Ulubad, an¬ 
ciently styled the lake of Apollonia, which according to 
Tournefort is about 25 miles in circumference, and in 
some places seven or eight miles wide, sprinkled with se¬ 
veral isles and some peninsulas, being a grand receptacle 
of the waters from mount Olympus. The largest isle is 
about three miles in circuit, and is called Abouillona, pro¬ 
bably from the ancient name of the city which stood on it. 
About 50 miles to the N. E. was the lake called Ascanius 
by the ancients, now that of Isnik. 

Mountains. Many of the mountains of Asiatic 
Turkey deserve particular attention, from their ancient 
celebrity. The first rank is due to the Taurian chain of 
antiquity, which was considered as extending from the 
neighbourhood of the Archipelago to the sources of the 
Ganges, and the extremities of Asia so far as discovered 
by the ancients. But this notion little accords with the 
descriptions of modern travellers, or the researches of re¬ 
cent geography ; and we might perhaps with equal justice 
infer that the Carpathian mountains, the Alps, and the Py¬ 
renees constitute one chain. Science is equally impeded 
by joining what ought to be divided, as by dividing what 
ought to be joined. The Caucasian mountains have been 
well delineated by the Russian travellers, as forming a 
range from the mouth of the river Cuban, in the N. W. to 
where the river Kur enters the Caspian, in the S. E. The 
remaining intelligence is dubious and defective ; but it 
would seem that » chain extends from Caucasus S. W. to 

U 2 


234 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


near the bay of Scanderoon. This ridge seems the Anti- 
Taurus of antiquity: but various parts of it were known 
by different names. At the other extremity of the Cau¬ 
casus other chains branch out into Persia ; which they per¬ 
vade from N. W. to S. E. but they may all be justly con¬ 
sidered as terminating in the deserts of the southeastern 
part of Persia ; or as having so imperfecta connection with 
the mountains of Hindoo Koh, which supply the western 
sources of the Indus, that it would be mere theory to re¬ 
gard them as a continued chain. The chain of Taurus, 
now called Kurun, perhaps from the old Greek name Ce- 
raunus, extends from about 600 miles E. and W. from the 
Euphrates to near the shores of the Archipelago. A re¬ 
cent traveller found the ascent and descent, between Ain- 
tab and Bostan, to occupy three days ; and the heights 
abound with cedars, savines, and junipers. 

Towards the east of Armenia is Ararat. It is a detach¬ 
ed mountain, with two summits ; the highest being covered 
with eternal snow. In one of the flanks is an abyss, or 
precipice, of prodigious depth, the sides being perpendicu¬ 
lar, and of a rough black appearance, as if tinged with 
smoke. This mountain belongs to Persia, but is here 
mentioned on account of connexion. 

Beyond Ararat are branches of the Caucasian chain ; to 
which, as is probable, belong the mountains of Clevendy 
which seem to be the Niphates of antiquity. 

In Syria the most celebrated mountain is that of Le¬ 
banon, or Libanus, running in the southerly and northerly 
direction of the Mediterranean shore, and generally at the 
distance of about 30 or 40 miles. The Anti-Libanus is a 
short detached chain, running nearly parallel on the east. 
These mountains are of considerable height, the summits 
being often covered with snow ; and they seem to be cal¬ 
careous, the granite not appearing till the neighbourhood 
of mount Sinai and the Arabian gulph. 

The eastern side of the Archipelago presents many 
mountains of great height and classical fame, chiefly in 
ranges extending from N. to S. Of these Olympus (now 
Keshik Dag) is one of the most celebrated, and is describ¬ 
ed by Tournefort as a vast range covered with perpetual 
snow. Many small streams spring from Olympus, and 
the large lake of Ullabad is another receptacle of its 
waters. 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


235 


About 140 miles to the west of Olympus rises mount 
Ida, />f great though not equal height. The summit of 
Ida was by the ancients called Garganus ; from which ex¬ 
tend western prominences reaching to the Hellespont, and 
amidst them stood the celebrated city of Troy : Garganus, 
or the summit of Ida, being about 30 miles from the shore ; 
and giving source to the Granicus, the Simois, and other 
noted streams, most of which run to the north. To the 
south of the Minder, or Maeander, the Taurus detaches a 
chain, called Cadmus and Grius, bending towards the isle 
of Cos and the Cyclades. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
mountains in Asiatic Turkey are often clothed with 
immense forests of pines, oaks, beeches, elms, and other 
trees. 

Among the indigenous trees may be distinguished, the 
olive tree abounding throughout the whole Archipelago 
and the shores of ihe Levant; the weeping willow graceful 
with its slender pendent branches, which has adorned the 
banks of the Euphrates from time immemorial; the wild 
olive, bearing a small sweet esculent fruit; the white mul¬ 
berry ; the storax tree, from which exudes the fragrant 
gum resin of the same name, the pomegranate; almond 
tree, and peach tree ; the cherry, a native of Pontus, whence 
it was brought to Rome by Lucullus; the lemon and orange; 
the myrtle, growing plentifully by the side of running 
streams; the plantain tree ; the vine, in a perfectly wild 
state climbing up the highest trees, and forming verdant 
grottos among its ample festoons; the mastich, Chio tur¬ 
pentine, and pistachia nut tree ; the cypress, the cedar; a 
few large trees of which still remain on Mount Lebanon, 
the venerable relics of its sacred forests.. The fig tree, 
and sycamore fig, abounding in Palestine and other parts 
of Syria; the date tree, the prickly cupped oak, from which 
are procured the finest Aleppo galls; the oriental plane 
tree, highly esteemed for its shady tent-like canopy of fo¬ 
liage ; and menispermum cocculus, the berries of which, 
commonly called cocculus indicus, are much used by the 
natives for taking fish, on account ©f their narcotic qualities. 

Several dying drugs and articles of the materia medica 
are imported from the Levant, among which may be parti¬ 
cularized madder, jalap, scammony, sebesten, croton tinc- 
torium ; ricinus communis, the seed of which yields by ex- 


2 36 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


pression the castor oil; squirting cucumber, coloquintida j 
opium poppy, and spikenard. 

The best horses in Asiatic Turkey are of Arabian ex¬ 
tract, and are sparingly fed with a little barley and minced 
straw, to accustom them to abstinence and fatigue ; but 
mules and asses are in more general use ; beef is scarce 
and bad. The mutton is superior ; and the kid is a favour¬ 
ite repast. 

In Asiatic Turkey appears that king of ferocious ani¬ 
mals the lion, yet he rarely roams to the west of the Eu¬ 
phrates : large tygers seem to be restricted to the wastes of 
Hindostan. The hyssna, and the wild boar, are known ani¬ 
mals of Asia Minor, together with troops of jackals, which 
raise dreadful cries in the night. 

The ibex, or rock goat, appears on the summits of Cau¬ 
casus. The goats of Angora have been already mentioned. 
The common antelope is also an inhabitant of Asia Minor, 
with numerous deer and hares. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of those extensive 
and mountainous provinces remains in a deplorable state of 
imperfection. Ancient Lydia was famous for the produc¬ 
tion of gold ; but in modern times no mines seem to be in¬ 
dicated, except those of copper which supply Tokat; lead, 
and copper ore, with rock crystals, have been observed in 
the island of Cyprus. 


ISLANDS BELONGING TO ASIATIC TURKEY. 


THE chief islands in the Archipelago, considered as be¬ 
longing to Asia,are Mytilene,Scio,Samos,Cos,and Rhodes. 

Mytilene, the ancient Lesbos, is the most northerly and 
largest of these isles, being about 40 British miles in length, 
by 24 at its greatest breadth. The climate is exquisite : and 
it was anciently noted for wines, and the beauty of the 
women. 

Scio, the ancient Chios, is about 36 British miles in 
length, but only about 13 in medial breadth. The Chian 
wine celebrated by Horace, retains its ancient fame. The 
Greeks here enjoy considerable freedom and ease ; and dis¬ 
play such industry that the country resembles a garden. 
This particular favour arises from the cultivation of the 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


237 


mastic tree, or rather shrubs, which supply the gum, so 
acceptable to the ladies of the sultan’s seraglio. Tourne- 
fort observed here tame partridges, kept like poultry ; and 
Chandler saw numerous groves of lemons, oranges, and 
citrons, perfuming the air with the odour of their blossoms, 
and delighting the eye with their golden fruit. The in¬ 
habitants are supposed to be about 60,000. 

Samos is about 30 miles in length, and 10 in breadth. 
Tournefort computes the inhabitants at 12,000, all Greeks. 
The pottery of Samos was anciently excellent; but at pre¬ 
sent most branches of industry are neglected. Pitch is pre¬ 
pared from the pine trees in the north part of the island, 
and the silk, honey, and wax are esteemed. 

Cos is about 24 miles in length, by three or four in 
breadth. It is covered with groves of lemon trees, and 
there is an oriental plane tree of vast size, and the chief 
trade is in oranges and lemons. 

Rhodes is about 36 British miles in length, by 15 in 
breadth. It is fertile in wheat, though the soil be of a san¬ 
dy nature. The population is computed at about 30,000. 
The city of the same name, in which no Christian is now 
permitted to dwell, was anciently noted for a colossus in 
bronze, about l 30 feet high. This isle was for two cen¬ 
turies possessed by the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, 
thence styled of Rhodes, till 1523, when they were expel¬ 
led by the Turks. 

Along the southern shore of Asia Minor, there are some 
small isles ; but they are of no moment when compared 
with the large and celebrated island of Cyprus, which is 
about 160 British miles in length, and about 70 at its great¬ 
est breadth. In the fifteenth century this isle was possess¬ 
ed by the Venetians; but in 1570 it was seized by the 
Turks. The soil is fertile, yet agriculture is in a neglect¬ 
ed state. The chief products are silk, cotton, wines, tur¬ 
pentine, and timber. The wine of Cyprus is deservedly 
celebrated. The oranges are excellent; and the moun¬ 
tains are covered with hyacinths and anemonies, and other 
beautiful flowers. The Cypriots are a tall and elegant race ; 
but the chief beauty of the women consists in their spark¬ 
ling eyes. To the disgrace of the Turkish government the 
population of this extensive island is computed at 50,000 
souls. So populous was it under the reign of Trajan, 
that the, Jews invaded the island and slew 240,000 of its 


238 


TURKEY IN ASIA. 


inhabitants, since which a Jew is not suffered to enter 
the island, and so rich as to tempt the avarice of the Ro¬ 
mans, who sent thither, to fleece the inhabitants, Cato : he 
raised a contribution of 7000 talents equal to 2 , 100,000 
crowns. In order to convey this vast sum safely to Rome, 
he divided it into small portions, which he put up in se¬ 
veral boxes, of about two and a half talents each ; and to 
each box he fastened a long rope with a piece of cork at the 
end of it; by which, in case of shipwreck, the treasure 
might be seen again. 

There is not one river in the island, that continues its 
course in the summer ; but there are many ponds, lakes, 
and fens, producing a damp and malignant air. The chief 
cities are Nicosia, the capital and residence of the governor, 
and Famagusta. 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 


Extent. THIS large portion of the habitable 
globe, extends almost the whole length of Asia, from about 
the 67th degree of longitude east of London to more than 
190°, or 133 of western longitude. As the northern lati¬ 
tude is very high, the degree shall only be assumed at 30 
miles, and the length may thus be computed at about 4000 
geographical miles. The greatest breadth from the cape 
of Cevero Vostochnoi, called in some maps Taimura, to 
the Altaian chain of mountains on the south of the sea of 
Baikal, may be 28° or 1680 geographical miles, an extent 
which will be found to exceed that of Europe. 

Boundaries. The farthest eastern boundary is 
that of Asia, and the seas of Kamchatka and Ochotsk ; while 
the northern is the Arctic ocean. On the west the frontiers 
correspond with those between Asia and Europe. The 
river Cuban, part of the Caucasian chain, and an ideal line, 
divide the Russian territory from Turkey and Persia on the 
south. The boundary then ascends through the desert of 
Issim, till it meets the vast empire of China ; the limits be¬ 
tween Russia and Chinese Tatary being partly an ideal 
line; and partly the river Argoon, which joined with the 
Onon constitutes the great river Amur. 

Original Population. The population of 
Asiatic Russia may be regarded as wholly primitive, ex¬ 
cept a few Russian colonies recently planted, and the 
Techuks in the part opposite to America, who have been 
supposed to have proceeded from that continent, because 
their persons and customs are different from those of the 
other Asiatic tribes. The radically distinct languages 




240 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 

amount to seven, independent of many dialects and mix¬ 
tures. 

When the Russians began the conquest of the country, 
being unconscious of its extent, the name of Sibir, or Sibe¬ 
ria which belonged only to a western province was gradual¬ 
ly diffused over the whole, comprising half of Asia. 

The boundary between China and Russia is the most ex¬ 
tensive on the globe, reaching from about the 65th to the 
145th degree of longitude; eighty degrees (latitude fifty) 
computed at 39 geographical miles, will yield the result of 
3120 miles. Its history therefore becomes singvilar and 
interesting. 

Antiquities. The most curious antiquities seem 
to be the stone tombs which abound in some steppes, par¬ 
ticularly near the river Yenesei, representing in rude sculp¬ 
ture human faces, camels, horsemen with lances, and 
other objects. Here are found besides human bones those 
of horses and oxen, with fragments of pottery and orna¬ 
ments of dress. 

Religion. The Grecian system of the Christian 
faith, which is embraced by the Russians, has made incon¬ 
siderable progress in their Asiatic possessions. Many of 
the Tatar tribes in the S. W. are Mahometans; others 
follow the superstition of the Dalai Lama, and the more 
eastern Tatars are generally addicted to the Shaman reli¬ 
gion, a system chiefly founded on the self-existence of 
matter, a spiritual world, and the general restitution of all 
things. This system is intimately connected with that of 
the Dalai Lama, and is so widely diffused, that some have 
asserted Shamanism to be the most prevalent system on the 
globe. 

The archiepiscopal see of Tobolsk is the metropolitan 
of Russian Asia in the north, and that of Astracan in the 
south. There is another see, that of Irkutsk and Nershink, 
and perhaps a few others of recent foundation. 

Government. Siberia is divided into two great 
governments, that of Tobolsk in the west, and Irkutsk in 
the east. In the S. W. is the government of Caucasus, 
with one or two other divisions, intermingling Europe and 
Asia. At a distance from the capital the government be¬ 
comes proportionably lax, and tribute is the chief mark of 
subjection. 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 


241 


Population. The population of "Siberia cannot 
be computed at above three millions and a half; so that 
Europe can in future have little to apprehend from the 
i atanc swarms. Small Russian colonies have been esta¬ 
blished in several of the distant provinces and isles. The 
political importance and relations of this part of the Russian 
empire chiefly relate to China and Japan. 

Manners and Customs. I he manners and cus¬ 
toms oi Asiatic Russia vary with the numerous tribes by 
wnom that extensive region is peopled. 

i lie manners of tne i atars, who are the most numerous, 
anc satBe people with the Huns of antiquity, are mi- 
nuteJy described by those authors who have delineated the 
lad ot the Roman empire, prior to which period they seem 
t° have been absolutely unknown to the ancients. 7'he 
Mom s uis aie wholly Eomadic, their herds consisting of 
horses, camels, oxen, sheep and goats. The women tan 
leather,dig the culinary roots, prepare the winter provisions 
dried or salted, and distil the koumiss, or spirit of mare’s 
milm 1 he men hunt the numerous beasts and game that 
roam through the vast wilds. Their tents are formed of a 
kind of felt, and in some parts they erect little temples, and 
the priests have also wooden hovels around the temples. 
I he ivalmuks are divided into three ranks ; the nobility, 
whom they call white bones ; the common people, who are 
bondmen, and termed black bones; and the clergy, de¬ 
scending from both, who are free. The power of the Taid- 
oi chief prince, consists solely in the number and opu¬ 
lence oi his subjects, territory being of no estimation in so 
v ide a region, i hese subjects form an C/uss , divided into 
n'om HO to 300 families, each Imak being com¬ 
manded by a Saissav , or noble. The tribute is about a tenth 
pai t oi tne caitle and other property ; but on the first sum¬ 
mons every man must appear on horseback before the 
prince, who dismisses those who are unfit for the fatigues of 
war. The weapons are bows, lances, and sabres, and some¬ 
times fire-arms; and the rich warriors are clothed in mail 
of interwoven rings, like that used in Europe till the fif¬ 
teenth century. 

7'he Mongols are rather short in stature, with aflat vi- 
sage, small oblique eyes, thick lips, and a short chin, with 
a scanty beard ; the hair black, and the complexion of a 
reddish or yellowish brown ; but that of the women is clear, 

X 


242 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 


and of a healthy white and red. They have surprising 
quickness of sight and apprehension, and are docile, hospi¬ 
table, beneficent, active, and voluptuous. Industry is a 
virtue entirely female, yet great, and accompanied with 
perpetual cheerfulness. Their religious books are in the 
dialect of Tangut, or Tibet, and there is a schoolmaster in 
every imak, who imparts more knowledge to the boys than 
would be expected. Animal food is abundant, and some¬ 
times mixed with vegetable, while the general drink is 
water; but they sometimes indulge in sour milk, prepared 
after the Tatarian manner, butter milk, and koumiss ; but 
mead and brandy are now greater favourites. When pas¬ 
turage begins to fail, the whole tribes strike their tents, 
generally from ten to fifteen times in the year, proceeding 
in the summer to the northern, and in the winter to the 
southern wilds. 

Such, with some slight shades of difference, are also the- 
manners of the Tatai s and Mandshurs. 

The three distinct barbaric nations of Tatars, Monguls, 
and Tunguses, or Mandshurs, are by far the most interest¬ 
ing in these middle regions of Asia, as their ancestors have 
overturned the greatest empires, and repeatedly influenced 
the destiny of half the globe. 

Language. The languages of all these original na¬ 
tions are radically different; and among the Tunguses, 
Monguls, and Tatars, there are some slight traces of liter¬ 
ature ; and not a few manuscripts in their several languages. 
In the Mongul language there are also many books, writ¬ 
ten in the various countries to which their wide conquests 
extended. 

Cities and Towns. In Asiatic Russia the princi¬ 
pal city is Astracan, at the mouth of the Volga, which is 
supposed to contain 70,0Q0 inhabitants. The wooden houses 
have exposed it to frequent conflagrations, and attempts 
have been vainly made to enforce the use of brick. There 
are twenty-five Russian churches, and two convents. 
The Armenians, Lutherans, and Papists, have also their 
places of worship; and even the Hindoos have been per¬ 
mitted to erect a temple. The chief trade of Astracan is 
in salt and fish, particularly sturgeon and kaviar from the 
Volga; and it also attracts some portion of oriental com¬ 
merce. 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 


243 

The chief place after Astracan is Orenburg*, founded in 
the year 1740, to protect the acquisitions in these parts, 
and promote their commerce. Nor have these views failed, 
for Orenburg is the seat of a considerable trade with the 
tribes on the east of the Caspian. 

On passing the Uralian chain, first occurs the city of To¬ 
bolsk, which only contains about 15,000 souls, but is es¬ 
teemed the capital of Siberia. Tobolsk is more distin¬ 
guished as the residence of the governor and archbishop, 
than for the importance of its commerce. 

On the river Angara, which issues from the sea of 
Baikal stands Irkutsk, supposed to contain 12,000 inhabi¬ 
tants. There are several churches and other edifices of 
stone, and the wooden houses are large and convenient. 
Irkutsk is the chief mart of the commerce between Russia 
and China, the see of an archbishop, and the seat of 
supreme jurisdiction oter eastern Siberia. 

On the wide and frozen Lena stands Yakutsk, with some 
stone churches, but the houses are mostly of wood. The 
Lena is here about two leagues in width, (though about 700 
miles from its mouth,) but is greatly impeded with ice. 

Manufactures and Commerce. There are 
some manufactures, particularly in leather, at Astracan. 
Isinglass is chiefly manufactured on the shores of the Cas¬ 
pian, from the sounds or air bladder of the sturgeon, and 
the beluga. Kaviar is the salted roe of large fish. There 
is a considerable fabric of nitre, about 40 miles to the north 
of Astracan. Near the Uralian mountains are several ma¬ 
nufactures in iron and copper. 

The chief commerce of this part of the Russian empire 
consists in sables, and other valuable furs, which are eager¬ 
ly bought by the Chinese, who return tea, silk, and porce¬ 
lain ; that with the Kirguses is carried on by exchanging 
Russian woollen cloths, iron, and household articles, for 
horses, cattle, sheep, and beautiful sheep-skins. On the 
Black Sea there is some commerce with Turkey, the ex¬ 
ports being furs, kaviar, iron, linen, See. and the imports 
wine, fruit, coflee, silks, rice. In the trade on the Caspian 
the exports are the same, but the return chiefly silk. 

Climate and Seasons. In Asiatic Russia the 
climate extends from 50° to 73 N. from the vine at the bot¬ 
tom of Caucasus, to the solitary lichen on the rocks of the 
Arctic ocean. The general climate may more justly be 


244 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 


regarded as frigid than temperate. The finest climate in 
the eastern parts seems to he that of Daouria, or the pro¬ 
vince around Nershinsk ; and the numerous towns on the 
Amur evince the great superiority of what is called Chinese 
Tatary, which is comparatively a fertile and temperate 
region. 

Soil and Agriculture. Many parts of Siberia 
are totally incapable of agriculture; but in the southern 
and western districts the soil is of remarkable fertility. 
Toward the north of Eolyvan barley generally yields more 
than twelve fold, and oats commonly twenty fold. Buck¬ 
wheat, in this black light mould, is apt to run into stalk, 
but sown in the poorest spots yields from twelve to fifteen 
fold. Exclusive of winter wheat, most of the usual Eu¬ 
ropean grains prosper in southern Siberia. The best rhu¬ 
barb abounds on the banks of the Ural, or Jaik in the 
southern districts. 

Rivers. Some of the largest rivers of Asia be¬ 
long to the Russian empire. The Yb, including its wide 
estuary, may be said to bold a comparative course of 1,900 
British miles, while that of the Yenesei is about 1730, and 
that of the Lena 1570. 

1 he Ob is navigable almost to its source, that is, to the 
lake of Altyn, and abounds with fish, but the sturgeon of 
the Irtish are the most esteemed. After it has been fro¬ 
zen for some time, the water becomes foul and fetid, but 
is purified in the spring by the melting of the snow. 

Next is the Yenesei, which is considered as deriving its 
source from the mountains to the S. W. of the Baikal, in 
the river called Siskit; but the name Yenesei is not impart¬ 
ed till many streams have joined, when it holds its course 
almost due north to the Arctic ocean. This river has some 
rapids, but is navigable for a great way. 

The last of these large rivers is the Lena, which rises 
to the west of the sea of Baikal, and, till near Yakutsk, pur¬ 
sues a course from the S. W. to the N. E. a direction of 
considerable utility, as affording navigation to the remote 
regions. From Yakutsk the course is nearly clue north; 
the channel being of great breadth and full of*islands, Such 
are the three largest rivers of Asiatic Russia ; others though 
of considerable magnitude we must omit. 

Takes. In the north of Siberia the most consider¬ 
able lake is that of Piazinsko. In the south the sea of 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 


245 


Baikal is fresh, but, the extent far exceeding that of any 
other lake. Between the river C)b and the Irtish is a large 
lake, about half the length of the Baikal, or 170 miles in 
length, divided by an island into two parts, called the lakes 
of 1 chany and Soumi. In this quarter there are many 
smaller lakes, and others to the north of the Caspian, some 
of which are salt, particularly that of Bogdo, near the small 
mountain so called. 

Mountains. The Uralian mountains have been 
already described in the account of European Russia. The 
grandest chain in Siberia is that called the mountains of 
Altai, which, according to Pallas, crossing the head of the 
Irtish, presents precipitous and snowy summits between 
that river and the sources of the Ob. Thence it winds in 
various courses, and under different names, to the eastern 
extremity of Asia. 

According to Dr. Pallas, Bogdo Tolu, or Bogdo Alim, 
the Almighty mountain, rears its pointed summits with 
striking sublimity, on the limit between the Soongarian and 
Mongolian deserts, while the chain passes south, and is 
supposed to join those of Tibet. 

i he western part of the Altaian chain is chiefly argil¬ 
laceous, with granitic heights, but many parts are calcare¬ 
ous. Sinnaia-Sopka, or the blue mountain, the chief sum¬ 
mit in the government of Kolyvan, does not exceed 3000 
feet above the sea. 

That space of the Altaian chain which runs between the 
Ob and the Yenesei has been little explored; but affords 
granite, porphyry, jasper, primitive and secondary lime¬ 
stone, with serpentine, petrosilex, slate, mountain crystal, 
carnelian, and calcedony: one of the highest summits is the 
Sabin, near the source of the Abakan. In general they 
are bare, the chief forests being in the bottoms near the 
rivers. 

The mountains of Nershink, or Russian Daouria, send 
branches towards the Selinga, and the Amur. Among the 
products may be named granite, porphyry, jasper, calce¬ 
dony, carnelian, onyx, large smoaky topazes, beryl, or 
aqua-marine, the real topaz, and the jacint. In this opu¬ 
lent district are also salt lakes, and warm springs with vi¬ 
triolic pyrites, ores of alum, native sulphur, and coal. The 
metals are zinc, iron, copper, and many mines of lead ore, 
containing silver and gold. 

X 2 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 


246 

The classical range of Caucasus forms a partial limit 
between the Russian empire, and those of Turkey and Per¬ 
sia. Between the Euxine and the Caspian the Caucasian 
chain extends for about 400 British miles. The summits 
are covered with eternal ice and snow ; and consist as usual 
of granite, succeeded by slate and limestone. In ancient 
times they produced gold ; and there are still vestiges of 
silver, lead, and copper ; and it is supposed of lapis lazuli. 
The vales abound with excellent forest trees. 

Although Asiatic Russia is so abundant in forests that 
particular names have not been assigned to so vast an ex¬ 
tent, yet the northern and eastern parts of Siberia are bare 
of wood ; the Norway fir not being found farther north than 
latitude 60°. In Europe, on the contrary, the Norway fir 
extends to the arctic circle. 

Stepps. After the forests, may be considered the 
extensive level plains, almost peculiar to Asia, and some 
parts of European Russia: but somewhat similar to the 
sandy deserts of Africa. The stepps are not so barren ol 
vegetation, being mostly only sandy, with scattered patches 
of thin grass, and at wide intervals a stunted thicket. 

On the eastern side of the Volga begins an extensive 
stepp, formerly called that of the Kalmuks, from tribes 
who used to roam there, till they withdrew from the Rus¬ 
sian dominions in 1771. This vast desert extends about 
700 British miles from E. to W. and including Issim, 
nearly as far from N. to S. but on the N. ol the Caspian 
the breadth does not exceed 220. 

The stepp of Barabin, N. W. of Omsk, is about 400 
miles in length, and 300 in breadth, containing a few salt 
lakes, but in general of a good black soil, interspersed 
with forests of birch. That of Issim aspires but rarely to 
the same quality: and in both are found many tombs, in¬ 
closing the remains of pastoral chiefs, Tatar or Mongul. 

The vast space between the Ob, and the Yenesei, from 
the north of Tomsk to the Arctic ocean, is regarded as one 
stepp, being a prodigious level with no appearance of 
a mountain, and scarcely of a hill. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. Rus¬ 
sia in Asia, with regard to its vegetable production, is di¬ 
vided by nature into two unequal portions: The smaller 
of these is bounded on the west by the Don, and Wolga, 
on the east by the Uralian mountains, and on the south by 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 


247 


the Caspian sea, and the Turkish, and Persian frontiers. 
The climate of this district is delicious, and the soil fertile, 
it slopes towards the south, and is protected from the north¬ 
ern blasts by lofty mountainous ridges; the cedar, the cy¬ 
press, the saving, red juniper, beech, and oak, clothe the 
sides of the mountains ; the almond, the peach, and the fig- 
abound in the warm recesses of the rocks ; the quince, the 
apricot, the willow-leaved pear, and the vine are of fre¬ 
quent occurrence in the thickets, and on the edges of the 
forests. The olive, the stately wide-spreading* eastern 
plane tree, the laurel, the bay, and laurustinus, grow in 
abundance on the shores of the sea of Azof, and the Cas¬ 
pian ; and the romantic vales of the Caucasus are perfumed 
and enlivened with the syringa, the jasmine, the lilach, and 
the Caucasian rose. 

By far the larger part of the Russian dominions in Asia 
is the wide expanse of Siberia, sloping towards the north, 
and shut up on the south by the snowy summits of the 
Altaian, and other mountainous -chains. As the winters 
are of great length and severity throughout the whole of 
this trust, none but the hardiest vegetables are found to 
inhabit it. Even the common heath, and bog myrtle, which 
cover the lower parts of Lapland, venture but a very little 
way eastward of the Uralian mountains. We are not how¬ 
ever hence to conclude that the mighty rivers of Siberia 
pour their everlasting streams through a barren waste of 
perpetual snow ; on the contrary they are bordered with 
inexhaustible forests of birch, of alder, of lime, of Tatarian 
maple, of black and white poplar, and aspen, besides mil¬ 
lions of noble trees of the pine species, such as the fir, the 
Scotch pine, the larch, the stone pine, the yew-leaved fir. 

In the greater part of Asiatic Russia the rein deer, which 
extends to the farther east, performs the office of the horse, 
the cow, and the sheep; if we except Kamchatka, where 
dogs are used for carriage. But the south may per¬ 
haps be considered as the native country of that noble ani¬ 
mal, the horse, being there found wild, as well as a species 
of the ass. The terrible urus or bison is yet found in the 
Caucasian mountains ; and the argali, or wild sheep, is 
hunted in Siberia. The ibex or rock goat is frequent on 
the Caucasian precipices : and large stags occur in the 
mountains near the Baikal, with the musk animal; the 
wild boar, wolves, foxes, and bears, of various names and 


i48 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 


descriptions, are also found. That kind of weazel called 
the sable affords a valuable traffic by its firs. Some kinds 
of hares appear, little known in other regions; and the 
castor or beaver is an inmate of the Yenesei. 

The horses of the Monguls are of singular beauty, some 
being ribbed like the tiger, and others spotted like the leo¬ 
pard. The nostrils of the foals are commonly slitted, that 
they may inhale more air in the course. The three great 
Nomadic nations of the centre of Asia, the Tatars, Mon¬ 
guls, and Mandshurs, have no aversion to horse flesh, which 
is in their opinion superior to beef; but it is never eaten 
raw, as fabled, though they sometimes dry it in the sun and 
air, when it will keep for a long time, and is eaten without 
farther preparation. The adon , or stud of a noble Mongul, 
may contain between three and four thousand horses and 
mares. The cattle are of a middling size, and pass the 
winter in the stepps or deserts. As these nations use the 
milk of mares, so they employ the cow for draught, a 
string being passed through a hole made in their nostril. 
Mr. Bell met a beautiful Tatar girl astride on a cow, at¬ 
tended by two male servants. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of Siberia is equally 
fertile. Peter the Great, who directed his attention to 
every object of utility, was the first who ordered these re¬ 
mote mines to be explored. 

The chief gold mines of Siberia are those of Catherin- 
burg or Ekatheringburg, on the east of the Uralian moun¬ 
tains, about latitude 57°, where an office for the manage¬ 
ment of the mines was instituted in 1719. The mines of 
various sorts extend to a considerable distance on the N. 
and S. of Catherinburg, and the founderies, chiefly for cop¬ 
per and iron, are computed at 105. But the gold mines of 
Beresof, in this vicinity, were of little consequence till the 
reign of Elizabeth. The mines of Nershinsk, discovered in 
1704, are principally of lead mixed w r ith silver and gold ; 
and those of Kolyvan, chiefly in the Schlangenberg, or 
mountain of serpents, so called by the German miners, be¬ 
gan to be worked for the crown in 1748. 

But the iron mines of Russia are of the most solid and 
lasting importance, particularly those which supply the 
numerous founderies of the Uralian mountains. 

Rock salt is chiefly found near the Ilek, not far from 
Orenburg. Coal is scarcely known ; but sulphur, alum, 


RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. U9 

sal-ammoniac, vitriol, nitre, and natron, are found in abun¬ 
dance. 

Nor must the gems of Siberia be omitted, of which there 
is a great variety. Common topazes are found in Adun- 
shollo, in quadrangular prisms, as is also the jacint. The 
beryl or aqua-marine is found in what are called the gem 
mines of Moursintsky near Catherinburg, along with the 
chrysolite. Red garnets abound near the sea of Baikal; 
and a yellowish white kind was discovered by Laxman. 
The green felspar of Siberia is a beautiful stone, by the 
Russians carved into various ornaments. The Baourin 
mountains between the Onon and the Argoon also produce 
elegant onyx; and several other rare and beautiful stones 
are found in other places. 


ISLES BELONGING TO ASIATIC RUSSIA. 


THESE were formerly divided into the Aleutian, An- 
drenovian, and Kurilian groups, with the Fox isles, which 
extend to the promontory of Alaska in North America. 
Of the Aleutian isles, on the east of Kamchatka, there are 
only two worth notice, Beering’s isle and Cooper isle. The 
Andrenovian isles may be regarded as the same with the 
Fox islands, being the western part of the same range ; 
and form a group of six or more isles, about 500 miles to 
the S. E. of Beering’s. 

The Kurilian isles extend from the southern promon¬ 
tory of Kamchatka towards the land of Jesso and Japan, 
being supposed to be about 20 in number, of which the 
largest are Poro Muschir, and Mokanturu. Several of 
these isles are volcanic; and some contain forests of birch, 
alder, and pine. Most of them swarm with foxes of va¬ 
rious colours. The inhabitants of the Kurilian isles seem 
to be of similar origin with the Kamchadals. 


THE CHINESE EMPIRE. 


IN the last century the Chinese emperors, of the Mand- 
shur race, extended this wide empire over many western 
countries, inhabited by wandering hordes of Monguls, 
Mandshurs, and Tatars ; and established such firm influ¬ 
ence over Tibet, that the Chinese empire may now be con¬ 
sidered as extending from those parts of the Pacific ocean 
called the Chinese and Japanic seas, to the rivers Sarasou 
and Sibon in the west, a space of 81 Q , which, taking the 
medial latitude of 30°, will amount to nearly 4,200 geo¬ 
graphical, or 4,900 British miles. From N. to S. this vast 
empire may be computed from the Uralian mountains, Iat. 
50°, to the southern part of China about lat. 21°, being 29 
degrees of latitude, 1740 geographical, or nearly 2,030 Bri¬ 
tish miles. It may lie divided into three parts viz. China 
proper, the territory of the Monguls and Mandshurs, and 
the interior country of Tibet. 




CHINA PROPER. 


THIS distinguished region is, by the natives, styled 
Tchon-Koue, which signifies the centre of the earth, as 
they proudly regard other countries as mere skirts and 
appendages to their own. After the conquest of the nor¬ 
thern part by the descendants of Zingis, it was styled Ca¬ 
thay, while the southern part was known by the appellation 
of Mangi. The origin of the name of China, or Tsin, seems 
uncertain; but the connexion between this word and the 
Sinse of the ancients appears imaginary, the country of the 
Sinae being shown by Gossellin to be much farther to the 
west. The Mahometan travellers of the ninth century, 
published by Renaudot, call this country Sin, but the Per¬ 
sians pronounce it Tchin. 

China Proper extends from the great wall in the north 
to the Chinese sea in the south, about 1140 geographical, or 
1330 British miles. The breadth from the shores of the 
Pacific to the frontiers of Tibet may be computed at 884 
geographical, or nearly 1030 British miles. In square 
miles the contents have been estimated at 1,297,999. On 
the east and south the boundaries are maritime, and to the 
north they are marked by the great wall and the desert of 
Shamo ; the confines with Tibet on the west seem to be 
chiefly indicated by an ideal line, though occasionally more 
strongly marked by mountains and rivers. 

Original Population The population of China 
seems wholly aboriginal, but the form of the features ap¬ 
pears to imply intimate affinity with the Tatars, Monguls 
and Mandshurs ; yet the Chinese probably constitute a 
fourth grand division, not strictly derived from either of 
these barbaric races. 




252 


CHINA PROPER. 


Historical Epochs. The Chinese history is said 
to commence, in a clear and constant narration, about 
2500 years before the birth of Christ. The founder of the 
monarchy is Fo-Hi; but the regular history begins with 
Yao. The dynasties or families who have successively 
held the throne amount to 22, from the first named Hia, 
to the present house of Tsing. Sometimes the monarchy 
is divided into that of the south, which is esteemed the 
ruling and superior inheritance ; and that of the north. The 
Mandshurs to the north of China repeatedly influenced the 
succession to the empire ; but the Monguls under Zingis 
and his successors seized the five northern provinces. 
Hoaitsing, who began to reign A. D. 1627, w r as the last 
prince of the Chinese dynasties. Some unsuccessful wars 
against the Mandshurs, had rendered this emperor melan¬ 
choly and cruel; and insurrections arose, the most formi¬ 
dable being conducted by two chiefs Li and Techang. 
The former besieged Pekin, which was surrendered by the 
general discontent, and the emperor, retiring to his garden, 
first slew his daughter with his sabre, and afterwards hang¬ 
ed himself on a tree, having only lived 36 years. The 
usurper seemed firmly seated on the throne, when a prince 
of the royal family invited the Mandshurs, who advanced 
under their king Tson Te. The Mandshur monarch had 
scarcely entered China when he died ; and his son of six 
years of age was declared emperor, the regency being en¬ 
trusted to his uncle. The young prince named Chun 
Tchig, was the first emperor of the present dynasty, and 
has been followed by four princes of the same Mandshur 
family. 

Antiquities. The chief remain of ancient art in 
China is that stupendous wall, extending across the northern 
boundary. 1 his work, which is deservedly esteemed among 
the grandest labours of art, is conducted over the summits 
of high mountains, some of which rise to the height of 
522 5 feet, across the deepest vales, over wide rivers by 
means or arches; and in many parts is doubled or trebled 
to command important passes and at the distance of almost 
every hundred yards is a tower or massy bastion. The ex¬ 
tent is computed at 1500 miles ; but in some parts of smal¬ 
ler danger it is not equally strong nor complete, and to¬ 
wards the N. W. is only a rampart of earth. Near Koo- 
peko the wall is 25 feet in height, and at the top about 15 


CHINA PROPER. 


253 


ieet tnick: some of the towers which are square, are 48 
feet high and about 50 feet wide. 

A v hen this stupendous wall was erected is uncertain j 
some authors say it has been standing 2000 years, and 
others only 600. 

Religion. According to Du Halde the ancient 
Chinese worshipped a supreme being, whom they styled 
Chang Ti, or Tien. They also worshipped subaltern spi¬ 
rits who presided over kingdoms, provinces, cities, rivers, 
and mountains. Under this system sacrifices were offered 
on the summits of hills. 

About A. D. 65, the sect of Fo was introduced into 
China from Hindostan, and the chief tenets are those of 
the Hindoos, among which is the metempsychosis, or tran¬ 
sition of souls from one animal to another. The priests 
are denominated Bonzes, and Fo is supposed to be gratified 
by the favour shewn to his servants. 

Since the fifteenth century many Chinese literati have 
embraced a new system, which acknowledges an universal 
principle, under the name of Taiki, seeming to correspond 1 
with the soul of the world of some ancient philosophers. 
I he Chinese believe also in petty demons who delight in 
minute acts of evil, or good. They admit of monasteries; 
and the Chinese temples are always open, nor is there any 
subdivision of the month known in the country. 

Government. The government of China is well 
'known to be patriarchal. The emperor is indeed absolute ; 
but the examples of tyranny are rare, as he is taught to re¬ 
gard iiis people as his children, and not as his slaves. All 
the officers of government pass through a regular education, 
and a progress ol rank, which are held indispensable. Of 
these officers, who have been called mandarins, there are 
nine classes, from the judge of the village to the prime mi¬ 
nister. The profession requiring a long and severe course 
of study, the practice of government remains, like that of 
medicine, unshaken by exterior events; and while the im¬ 
perial throne is subject to accident and force, the remain¬ 
der of the machine pursues its usual circle. 

The governors of the provinces have great and absolute 
power, yet rebellions are not unfrequent. Bribery is also 
an universal vice ; and the Chinese government, like many 
others, is more fair in the theory than in the practice. Yet 
i?ne amazing population, and the general ease and happi- 

Y 1 


254 


CHINA PROPER. 


ness of the people, evince that the administration of the go¬ 
vernment must be more beneficent than any yet known 
among mankind. 

Agreeably to a table published by Sir G. Staunton there 
are in China Proper 18 provinces, 1,297,999 square miles, 
and 333,000,000 of inhabitants. 

The army has been computed at 1,000,000 of infantry, 
and 800,000 cavalry ; and the revenues at about thirty-six 
millions and a half of Tahels, or ounces of silver, or about 
nine millions sterling; but as rice and other grain are also 
paid in kind, it may be difficult to estimate the precise 
amount or relative value compared with European money. 

Sir G. Staunton, estimates the revenue at 200,000,000 
of silver, which, he says, is equal to 66,000,000/. sterling; 
but valuing the ounce of silver at five shillings, the amount 
is 50,000,000/. 

Manners and Customs. The Chinese being 
a people in the highest state of civilization, their manners 
and customs might require a long description ; the limits 
of this work will only admit a few hints. In the sea ports 
there is an appearance of fraud and dishonesty ; but it is to 
be supposed that this is not the general character. The 
indolence of the upper classes, who are even fed by their 
servants, and the nastiness of the lower, who eat almost 
every kind of animal, in whatever way it may have died, 
are also striking defects, occasioned, perhaps, by dire ne¬ 
cessity in so populous a country. To the same cause may 
be imputed the exposition of the infants. On the other 
hand the character of the Chinese is mild and tranquil, and 
universal affability is very rarely interrupted by the slight¬ 
est tincture of harshness or passion. The general drink is 
tea, of which a large vessel is prepared in the morning for 
the occasional use of the family during the day. Marriages 
are conducted solely by the will of the parents, and polyga¬ 
my is allowed. The bride is purchased by a present to her 
parents, and is never seen by her husband till after the cere¬ 
mony. It is not permitted to bury in cities or towns, and 
the sepulchres are commonly on barren hills and moun¬ 
tains, where there is no chance that agriculture will disturb 
the dead. The colour of mourning is white, that personal 
neglect or forgetfulness may appear in its squalor. The 
walls of the houses are sometimes of brick, or of hardened 
clay, but more commonly of wood; and they generally 


CHINA PROPER. 


consist only of a ground floor, though in those of mer¬ 
chants there be sometimes a second story, which forms 
the warehouse. The dress is long with large sleeves, and 
a flowing girdle of silk. The shirt and drawers vary ac¬ 
cording to the seasons, and in winter the use of furs is ge¬ 
neral from the skin of the sheep to that of the ermine The 
head is covered with a small hat in the form of a funnel, 
but this varies among the superior classes, whose rank is 
distinguished by a large bead on the top, diversified in colour 
according to the quality. 

Language. The language is esteemed the most 
singular on the face of the globe. Almost every syllable 
constitutes a word and there are scarcely 1500 distinct 
sounds; yet in the written language there are at least 
80,000 characters, or different forms of letters, so that 
every sound may have about 50 senses. The leading cha¬ 
racters are denominated keys, which are not of difficult ac¬ 
quisition. The language seems originally to have been 
hieroglyphical; but afterwards the sound alone was consi¬ 
dered. 

Education. The schools of education are nu¬ 
merous, but the children of the poor are chiefly taught to 
follow the business of their fathers. In a Chinese treatise 
of education published by Du Halde, the following are re¬ 
commended as the chief topics. 1. The six virtues, name¬ 
ly, prudence, piety, wisdom, equity, fidelity, concord. 2. 
The six laudable actions, to wit, obedience to parents, love 
to brothers, harmony with relations, affection for neigh¬ 
bours, sincerity with friends, and mercy with regard to the 
poor and unhappy. 3. The six essential points of know¬ 
ledge, that of religious rites, music, archery, horseman¬ 
ship, writing, and accompts. Such a plan seems well cal¬ 
culated to make good citizens. 

Cities and Towns. The chief cities of China are 
Pekin and Nankin, or the northern and southern courts. 
Pekin occupies a large space of ground ; but the streets 
are wide, and the houses seldom exceed one story. The 
length of what is called the Tatar city is about four miles, 
and the suburbs are considerable. By the best information 
which the recent embassy could procure, the population 
was computed at 3,000,000. The houses indeed are nei¬ 
ther large nor numerous; but it is common to find three 
generations with all their wives and children under one 


256 


CHINA PROPER. 


roof, as they eat in common, and one room contains many 
beds. The walls of this capital are of considerable strength 
and thickness; and the nine gates of no inelegant architec¬ 
ture. Strict police and vigilance are observed, and the 
streets are crowded with passengers and carriages. The 
grandest edifice is the imperial palace, which consists of 
many picturesque buildings, dispersed over a wide and 
greatly diversified space of ground, so as to present the 
appearance of enchantment. 

Nankin, which was the residence of the court till the 
fifteenth century, is a yet more extensive city than Pekin, 
and is reputed the largest in the empire. The walls are 
said to be about seventeen British miles in circumference. 

The chief edifices are the gates with a few temples ; and 
a celebrated tower clothed with porcelain, about 200 feet in 
height, which seems to have been chiefly erected as a me¬ 
morial, or an ornament, like the Grecian and Roman 
columns. 

To the American reader one of the most interesting 
cities is Canton, which is said to contain a million and a 
half of inhabitants ; numerous families residing in barks on 
the river. The chief export is that of tea, of which it is 
said that about 13,000,000 of pounds weight are consumed 
by Great Britain and her dependencies, about 5,000,000 
by the rest of Europe, and above 2,000,000 by the United 
States. The imports from England, chiefly woollens, with 
lead, tin, furs, and other articles, are supposed to exceed a 
million ; and the exports a million and a half, besides the 
trade between China and their possessions in Hindostan. 
Other nations carry to Canton the value of about 200,000/. 
and return with articles to the value of about 600,000/. So 
that the balance in favour of China may be computed at a 
million sterling. 

The other large cities of China are almost innumerable ; 
and many of the villages are of a surprising size. 

Edifices. The most striking and peculiar edifices. 
in China are the pagodas or towers, which sometimes rise 
to the height of nine stories, of more than twenty feet each. 
1 he temples, on the contrary, are commonly low buildings, 
always open to the devout worshippers of polytheism. 

Roads. The roads are generally kept in excellent 
order, with convenient bridges. That near the capital is 
thus described by Sir George Staunton : “ This road forms 


CHINA PROPER. 


257 


a magnificent avenue to Pekin for persons and commodi¬ 
ties bound for that capital, from the east and from the south. 
It is perfectly level; the centre, to the width of about 20 
feet, is paved with flags of granite, brought from a consi¬ 
derable distance, and of a size from six to sixteen feet in 
length, and about four feet broad. On each side of this 
granite pavement is a road unpaved, wide enough for car¬ 
riages to cross upon it. The road was bordered in many 
places with trees.” 

Inland Navigation. The canals of China have 
long excited the envy and wonder of other nations. The 
imperial canal which, in utility and labour, exceeds the 
enormous wall, is said to have been begun in the tenth 
century of the Christian era, 30,000 men having been em¬ 
ployed for 43 years in its completion. 

u The ground which intervened between the bed of this 
artificial river, and that of the Eu-ho, was cut down to the 
depth of about 30 feet, in order to permit the waters of the 
former to flow with a gentle current into the latter. Their 
descent is afterwards checked occasionally by flood-gates 
thrown across the canal, wherever they were judged to be 
necessary. They consist merely of a few planks let down 
separately one upon another, by grooves cut into the sides 
of the two solid abutments or piers of stone, that project 
one from each bank, leaving a space in the middle wide 
enough to admit a passage for the largest vessels employed 
upon the canal. As few parts of it are entirely level, the 
use of these flood-gates assisted by others cut through its 
banks, is to regulate the quantity of water in the canal. 

“ Light bridges of timber are thrown across those piers, 
which are easily withdrawn whenever vessels are about to 
pass underneath.” 

The same author describes this canal as beginning at 
Lin-sin-choo, where it joins the river Eu-ho, and extending 
to Han-cLoo-foo, in an irregular line of about 500 miles. 
Where it joins the Hoan-ho, or Yellow River, it is about 
three quarters of a mile in breadth. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The manufac¬ 
tures of China are so multifarious as to embrace almost 
every article of industry. The most noted manufacture is 
that of porcelain, and is followed in trade by those of silk, 
cotton, paper, &c. 

Y 2 


258 


CHINA PROPER. 


The internal commerce of China is immense, but the 
external trade unimportant, considering the vastness of the 
empire ; a scanty intercourse exists with Russia and Japan : 
but the chief export is that of tea, which is sent to England 
to the value of about one million yearly. 

Climate and Seasons. The European inter¬ 
course with China being chiefly confined to the southern 
part of the empire, the climate is generally considered as 
hot, whereas at Pekin in the north the average degree 
of the thermometer is under 20° in the night during the 
winter months; and even in the day it is considerably be¬ 
low the freezing point. 

Face of the Country. The face of the country 
is infinitely diversified ; and though in a general view it be 
flat and fertile, and intersected with numerous large rivers 
and canals, yet there are chains of mountains and other dis¬ 
tricts of a wild and savage nature. 

The soil is various, and agriculture by the account of all 
travellers is carried to the utmost degree of perfection. 

“ Where the face of the hill or mountain is not nearly 
perpendicular to the level surface of the earth, the slope is 
converted into a number of terraces, one above another, 
each of which is supported by mounds of stone. By this 
management it is not uncommon to see the whole face of 
a mountain completely cultivated to the summit. Pulse, 
gram, yams, sweet potatoes, onions, carrots, turnips, and 
a variety of other culinary plants are produced upon them. 
A reservoir is sunk in the top of the mountain. 1 he rain¬ 
water collected in it is conveyed by channels successively 
to the different terraces, placed upon the mountain’s sides. 

“ The collection of manure is an object of so much at¬ 
tention with the Chinese, that a prodigious number of old 
men and women, as well as of children, incapable of much 
other labour, are constantly employed about the streets, 
public yoads, banks of canals, and rivers, with baskets tied 
before them, and holding in their hands small wooden rakes 
to pick up the dung of animals and offals of any kind that 
may answer the purpose of manure ; but above all others, 
except the dung of fowls, the Chinese farmers prefer 
night soil. This manure is mixed sparingly with a por¬ 
tion of stiff loamy earth, and formed into cakes dried after¬ 
wards in the sun. In tj>is state it sometimes becomes an 


CHINA PROPER. 


25D 


object of commerce, and is sold to farmers, who never em¬ 
ploy it in a compact state. 

“ The quantity of manure thus collected must however 
be still inadequate to that of the cultured ground, which 
bears so vast a proportion to the whole surface of the coun¬ 
try. It is reserved therefore in the first instance , for the 
purpose of procuring a quick succession of culinary ve¬ 
getables, and for forcing the production of flowers and 
fruit. 

“ The great object of Chinese agriculture, the produc¬ 
tion of grain, is generally obtained with little manure, and 
without letting the land lie fallow. Irrigation is practised 
to a very gre^t extent. The husbandry is singularly neat, 
and not a weed is to be seen. 5 ’ 

Rivers. In describing the rivers of this great em¬ 
pire, two are well known to deserve particular attention, 
namely, the Hoan-ho and the Kian-ku. The sources of the 
first, also called the Yellow River, from the quantity of mud 
which it devolves, are two lakes, situated about the 35th° of 
north latitude, and about 97th° east from Greenwich. This 
prodigious river is extremely winding and devious in its 
course, and discharges itself into the Yellow Sea. Its com¬ 
parative course may be estimated at about 1800 British 
miles: and its velocity equals seven or eight miles in the 
hour. 

The Kian-ku rises in the vicinity of the sources of the 
Hoan-ho, and winas nearly as far to the south as the Hoan- 
ho does to the north. After washing the walls of Nankin 
it enters the sea about 100 miles to the south of Hoan-ho. 
Its length is estimated at aboat 2200 English miles. These 
two rivers may be considered as the longest on the face of 
the globe ; they certainly equal if they do not exceed, the 
famous river of the Amazons in bouth America. 

Lakes. Nor is China destitute of noble and ex¬ 
tensive lakes. Du Halde informs us that the lake of Tong- 
tint-hou, in the province of Hou-quang, is more than 80 
leagues in circumference. That of Poyang-hou, in the 
province of Kiang-si, is about 30 leagues in circumference. 
Upon a lake near the imperial canal were observed thou¬ 
sands of small boats and rafts, constructed for a singular 
species of fishery. “ On each boat or raft are ten or a da- 
zen birds, which, at a signal from the owner, plunge into 
the water; and it is astonishing to see the enormous size 


260 


CHINA PROPER. 


of fish with which they return grasped within their bills, 
without swallowing any portion of their prey, except what 
the master was pleased to return to them for encourage¬ 
ment and food.” 

Mountains. Concerning the extensive ranges of 
Chinese mountains, no general and accurate information 
has yet been given. From Mr. Arrowsmith’s recent map 
of Asia it appears that a considerable branch extends from 
those in central Asia, running south to the river Hoan-ho. 
Two grand ranges running E. and W. intersect the centre 
of the empire, seemingly continuations of the enormous 
chains of Tibet. In the southern part of China the princi¬ 
pal ridges appear to run from north to south. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. Among 
the trees and larger shrubs we find particularized the 
thuya orientalis, an elegant evergreen ; the camphor tree, 
whose wood makes an excellent and durable timber, 
and from the roots of which that fragrant substance 
camphor is procured by distillation ; the oleander-leaved 
euphorbia, a large shrub used as a material for hedges; 
the tallow tree, from the fruit of which a green wax is 
procured that is manufactured into candles; the spreading 
banyan tree, growing among loose rocks; the weeping wil¬ 
low ; Spanish chesnut, and the larch. Of the fruit trees the 
following are the principal: China orange; the plantain 
tree; the tamarind; the white and paper mulberry tree ; 
the former of these is principally cultivated for the use of 
its leaves, on which the silk worms are fed ; and of the bark 
of the latter, paper, and a kind of cloth are made. Nor 
must the two species of the tea tree be left unnoticed, 
whose leaves constitute so large a proportion of the Euro¬ 
pean trade with China. 

There are few animals peculiar to the Chinese territory. 
Du Halde asserts that the lion is a stranger to this country, 
but there are tigers, buffaloes, wild boars, bears, rhino¬ 
ceroses, camels, deer. See. The musk deer is a singular 
animal of China as well as Tibet. Among the birds many 
are remarkable for their beautiful forms and colours, in 
which they are rivalled by a variety of moths and butter¬ 
flies. 

Minerals. Among the metals lead and tin seem 
to be the rarest. China possesses mines of gold, silver, iron, 
white copper, common copper and mercury, together with 


CHINA PROPER. 


261 


lapis lazuli, jasper, rock crystal, load-stone, granite, por¬ 
phyry, and various marbles. 

In many of the northern provinces coal is found in abun¬ 
dance. The common people generally use it pounded with 
water, and dried in the form of cakes. 

Pekin is supplied from high mountains in the vicinity, 
and the mines seem inexhaustible, though the coal be in 
general use. 

Tutenag, which is a native mixture of zinc and iron, 
seems to be a peculiar product of China, and in the pro¬ 
vince of Houquang there was a mine which yielded many 
hundred weight in the course of a few days. 


CHINESE ISLANDS. 


Numerous isles are scattered along the southern and 
eastern coast of China, the largest being those of Taiwan, 
also called Formosa, and that of Hainan. Formosa is a re¬ 
cent acquisition of the Chinese in the latter end of the 
seventeenth century ; the natives being, by the Chinese ac¬ 
counts, little better than savages. 

The southern part ol Hainan is mountainous, but the 
northern more level and productive of rice. In the centre 
there are mines of gold; and on the shores are found small 
blue fishes, which the Chinese esteem more than those 
which we call gold and silver fish. 

The isles of Leoo-keoo, between Formosa and Japan, 
constitute a little civilized kingdom tributary to China. 
These isles were discovered by the Chinese in the seventh 
century; but it was not till the fourteenth that they became 
tributary to China. 


CHINESE TATARY. 


THIS extensive region might more properly be called 
Mongolia, as the greater number of tribes are Monguls ; 
or the western part might be styled Tatary, the middle 
Mongolia, and the eastern Mandshuria. The two latter 
are the objects of the present description ; as that of Inde¬ 
pendent Tatary will be found after the account of Persia 
with which it has (as now limited) in all ages been con¬ 
nected. 

Extent. This wide and interesting portion of 
Asia, which has repeatedly sent forth its swarms to deluge 
the arts and civilization of Europe, extends from the 72d° 
of longitude east from Greenwich to the 145th°,a space of 
not less than 73° of longitude, which at the medial latitude 
of 45°, will yield about 3100 geographical miles. The 
breadth from the northern frontier of Tibet to the Russian 
confines is about 18?, or 1080 geographical miles. 

Original Population. The original population 
of this part of Asia appears to have been indigenal, so far 
as the most ancient records extend. Part of the west was 
held by the Scythse of antiquity, seemingly a Gothic race, 
who were subdued or expelled by the Tatars or Huns from 
the east, pressed on the other side by the Monguls. Beyond 
the latter were the Mandshurs, who, though inferior to the 
Monguls in power, yet retained their ancient possessions, 
and in the seventeenth century conquered China. 

Historical Epochs. The chief historical epochs 
of the region we now contemplate may perhaps be more 
certainly traced in the Chinese annals, than in any other 
documents. The first appearance of the Huns or Tatars 
may be observed in the pages of Roman history. The 
annals of the Monguls, the most important nation, faintly 




CHINESE TATARY. 


263 


illuminate the pages of Abulgasi, whence it would appear 
that prior to Zingis there was only one celebrated chan 
named Oguz, who seems to have flourished about the 130th 
year of the Christian z, a. The reigns of Zingis and Ti¬ 
mur are sufficiently known in general history ; but the di¬ 
visions of their conquests, and the dissentions of their suc¬ 
cessors, have now almost annihilated the power of the 
Monguls, and the terror of their arms. 

Religion. The religion most universally diffused 
in this part of Asia is what has been called Shamanism, or 
the belief in a supreme author of nature, who governs the 
universe by the agency of numerous inferior spirits of great 
power. 

Government. The government at present is 
conducted by princes who pay homage to the Chinese em¬ 
pire, and receive Chinese titles of honour; but many of the 
ancient forms are yet retained. Though writing be not 
unknown among the Monguls, yet the laws appear to be 
chiefly traditional. 

Population. Of the population of these regions 
it is difficult to form any precise ideas ; but perhaps it does 
not exceed six millions. 

Divisions. The country of the Mandshurs is by 
the Chinese divided into three great governments. 1. 
That of Chinyang: the chief town is Chin yang, still a con¬ 
siderable place, with a mausoleum of Kunchi, regarded as 
the conqueror of China, and the founder of the reigning 
family. 2. The government of Kiren-Oula, which ex¬ 
tends far to the N. E. Kirem the capital stands on the 
river Songari, and was the residence of the Mandshur ge¬ 
neral who acted as viceroy. 3. The government of Tsit- 
chicar, so called from a town recently founded on the Nonni 
Oula where a Chinese garrison is stationed. 

In this division may also be mentioned Corea, which 
has for many centuries acknowledged the authority of 
China, and which boasts a considerable population. 

To the west are various tribes of Mont , nose coun¬ 
try may be considered under three divisions. 1. That 
•part called Gete which some regard as the country of the 
ancient Massagetas. 2. Little Bucharia, so called to dis¬ 
tinguish it from the Greater Bucharia; the people of Little 
Bucharia are an industrious race of a distinct origin, who 
are little mingled with their Kalmuk or Mongul lords. 3. 


264 


CHINESE TATARY. 


The countries of Turfan to the north of the lake called 
Lok Nor, and that of Chamil or Hami to the east, regions 
little known, and surrounded with wide deserts. 

Army. A numerous horde of barbarians, unskil¬ 
led in modern tactics. 

Manners and Customs, Language and Litera¬ 
ture. The manners and customs, language and lite¬ 
rature of the Monguls have been already briefly described 
in the account of Asiatic Russia. 

Cities and Towns. This extensive portion of 
Asia contains several cities and towns, generally construct¬ 
ed of wood, and of little antiquity or duration. They are 
mostly inconsiderable, and too uninteresting to an Ameri¬ 
can reader to be enumerated. 

Trade. The principal trade of the Mandshur 
country consists in ginseng and pearls, found in many 
rivers which fall into the Amur. Excellent horses may also 
be classed among the exports. Cashgar was formerly ce¬ 
lebrated for musk and gold. Corea also produces gold, 
silver, iron, beautiful yellow varnish, and white paper, 
ginseng, with small horses about three feet high, furs, and 
fossil salt. The other towns are rather stations for mer¬ 
chants than seats of commerce. 

Climate, See. Though the parallel of central Asia 
correspond with that of France, and part of Spain, yet 
the heights and snows of the mountainous ridges occa¬ 
sion a degree and continuance of cold little to be expected 
from other circumstances. 

Face of the Country. The appearance of this 
extensive region is diversified with all the grand features 
of nature, extensive chains of mountains, large rivers, and 
lakes. But the most singular feature is that vast elevated 
plain, supported like a table, by surrounding mountains. 
This prodigious plain, the most elevated continuous region 
on the globe, is intersected by some chains of mountains, 
and by the vast desert of Gobi or Sliamo. Destitute of 
plants and water, it is dangerous for horses, but is safely 
passed with camels. This desert extends from about the 
80th° of E. longitude from Greenwich to about the 110th 0 , 
being 30° of longitude, which in the latitude of 40°, may be 
1380 geographical miles. 

Agriculture. Among the southern Handshurs, 
and the people of Little Bucharia, agriculture is not w holly 


CHINESE TATARY. 


265 


neglected, nor is wheat an unknown harvest. The soil of 
so extensive a portion of the earth may be supposed to be 
infinitely various; but the predominating substance is black 
sand. 

Rivers. There are many considerable rivers that 
pervade central Asia, but the most important is that called 
by the Russians the Amur, which is deservedly classed 
among the largest rivers; rising near the Yabionoi moun¬ 
tains, and pursuing an easterly course of about 1850 British 
miles. 

Lakes. Some of the lakes are of great extent, as 
those oi Balkash or Tengis, and Zaizan, each about 150 
miles in length. Next is the Koko Nor, by some called 
Hoho Nor, or the blue lake, which gives name to a tribe 
of the Monguls. 

Mountains. On the west the great chain called 
Imaus by the ancients, the Belur l ag, or Dark Mountains 
of the natives, runs from north to south. 

In the eastern country of the Mandshurs the ridges of 
mountains are laid down in the same direction. 

Of the northern mountains of Tibet, and the sources of 
the Ganges, our knowledge remains imperfect. Still faint¬ 
er light falls on the ridges which run in an easterly and 
westerly direction to the north of the great desert. 

There are some forests near the rivers; but in general 
the extreme elevation and sandy soil ol central Asia render 
trees almost as rare as in the deserts of Africa. 

Animals. The zoology of this wide portion of 
the globe would supply an infinite theme, in which the ca¬ 
mel of the desert might appear with the rock goat of the 
A*ps, and the tiger with the ermine. I he wild horse, and 
the wild ass, and a peculiar species of cattle which grunt 
like swine, are among the most remarkable singularities. 
The wild horse is generally of a mouse colour, and small, 
with long sharp ears. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of central Asia has 
been little explored. 


ISLAND OF SAGALIAN, OR TCHOKA. 

Till this large island was explored by the unfortunate 
navigator La Perouse, it was supposed to be only a small 

Z 


266 


CHINESE TATARY. 


isle at the mouth of the Amur. It is now found to extend 
from the 46th° of latitude to the 54th°, or not less than 
480 geographical miles in length, by about 80 of medial 
breadth, and is the most important portion of that naviga¬ 
tor’s voyage. The natives seem to approach to the 
Tataric form ; their dress is a loose robe of skins, or quilt¬ 
ed nankeen, with a girdle. Their huts, or cabins, are of 
timber, thatched with grass, with a fireplace in the centre. 
The people are highly praised by La Perouse as a mild 
and intelligent race. 


I 


TIBET. 


THE name of Tibet , which is probably Hindoo or Per¬ 
sian, is in the country itself, and in Bengal, pronounced 
Tibbet or Tibt. But the native appellation is Pue or Pue 
Koachim , said to be derived from Pue , signifying northern, 
and Koachim , snow, that is the snowy region of the north. 

Extent. According to the most recent maps, 
Tibet extends from about the 75th to the 101st degree of 
longitude, which in the latitude of 30° may be about 1350 
geographical miles. The breadth may be regarded as ex¬ 
tending from the 27th to the 35th degree of latitude, or 
about 4S0 geographical miles. The original population has 
not been accurately examined ; but it may perhaps be con¬ 
cluded that they are derived from the Bootanese, a race of 
men which approaches the Tataric, though they cannot be 
regarded as Mandshurs, Monguls, or Tatars proper. 

Provinces. Tibet is divided into three parts, Up¬ 
per, Middle, and Lower. Upper Tibet chiefly comprises 
the province of Nagari, full of horrible rocks, and moun¬ 
tains covered with eternal snow. Middle Tibet contains 
the provinces of Shang, Ou, and Kiang: while the pro¬ 
vinces of Lower Tibet are Takbo, Congbo, and Kahang. 

To these must be added the wide region of Amdoa, if 
it be not the same with Kahang, but it seems more proba¬ 
bly to embrace the confines towards China, as the natives 
are remarkably ingenious, and speak the Chinese language. 
The N. E. part was, with the Chinese province of Shensi, 
before the great wall was extended in this quarter, the ce¬ 
lebrated Tangut of oriental history and geography. On 
the western side, high mountains, covered with perpetual 
snow, and with all the terrible avalanches, and other fea¬ 
tures of the Swiss Alps, have in all ages prevented the Per- 




£68 


TIBET. 

sians and the conquerors of Bucharia from invading this 
country, and have also prevented travellers from penetrat¬ 
ing- into that quarter of the globe. 

About 1715 the emperor of China being desirous to ob¬ 
tain a map of Tibet, two Lamas were sent who had studied 
geometry in a mathematical academy. These lamas drew 
a map from Sining, in the province of Shensi, to the 
sources of the Ganges ; which was afterwards examined 
by the Jesuits, and improved by them, so far as their ma¬ 
terials would admit. 

But the geography of Asia cannot be said to be complete 
till we have new and correct maps of the central parts, 
particularly of Tibet, which may be called the heart of 
Asia. The sources of the Ganges and Indus, the Sampoo, 
and all the prodigious and fertile streams of exterior India, 
and of China, belong to this interesting region. 

Religion. The religion of Tibet seems to be the 
Schismatical offspring of that of the Hindoos. It bears 
a very close affinity with the religion of Brahma in many 
important particulars, but differs materially in its ritual, or 
ceremonial worship. Tibetans assemble in chapels, and 
unite together in prodigious numbers to perform their re¬ 
ligious service, which they chaunt in alternate recitative 
and chorus, accompanied by an extensive band of loud 
and powerful instruments. 

Government. The ruling government is the 
spiritual, though the lama was accustomed to appoint a 
tifia, or secular regent, a right which has probably passed 
to the Chinese emperor. The laws must, like the religion, 
bear some affinity to that of the Hindoos. 

Population. No estimate of the population of 
Tibet seems to have been attempted; but as the country 
may be said to be wholly mountainous, and the climate 
excessively cold, even under the 27th degree of latitude, 
(the influence of mountains being far superior to that of 
imaginary zones,) the people are thinly scattered, and the 
number of males far exceeds that of females, and of course 
the latter are indulged in a plurality of husbands. There is 
every reason to suppose the population is inconsiderable. 

Revenues. The revenues of the lama, and of the 
secular princes, seem to be trifling; nor can Tibet ever as¬ 
pire to any political importance. In a commercial point of 
view, friendship and free intercourse with Tibet might 


TIBET. 


269 


open new advantages to the British settlements in Bengal; 
and in this design repeated envoys to the lama were sent 
by Mr. Hastings, a governor who possessed the most en¬ 
larged and enlightened mind, and an active attention to the 
interests of his country. 

Character, &c. Mr. Turner represents the cha¬ 
racter of the Tibetans as extremely gentle and amiable. 
The men are generally stout, with something of the Tata- 
ric features, and the women of a ruddy brown complexion, 
heightened like the fruits by the proximity of the sun, 
while the mountain breezes bestow health and vigour. 

u The ceremonies of marriage are neither tedious nor 
intricate in Tibet. Their courtships are carried on with 
little art, and quickly brought to a conclusion. The priests 
ol I ibet, who shun the society of women, have no share in 
these ceremonies, or in ratifying the obligation between 
the parties, which, it seems, is formed indissolubly for 
life.” 

Such is the respect paid to the lama, that his body is 
preserved entire in a shrine; while those of the inferior 
priests are burnt, and their ashes preserved in little hollow 
images of metal. But in general the dead bodies are ex¬ 
posed to the beasts and birds of prey, in walled areas ; and 
an annual festival is held, as in Bengal and China, in honour 
of the dead. 

Language. The origins of the Tibetan speech 
have not been properly investigated. The literature is 
chiefly of the religious kind, the books being sometimes 
printed with blocks of wood, on narrow slips of thin paper, 
fabricated from the fibrous root of a small shrub. In this 
practice they resemble the Chinese ; while the Hindoos 
engrave their works with a steel stylus upon the recent 
leaves of the palmyra tree, (borassusfiabeiliformis,) afford¬ 
ing a fibrous substance, which seems indestructible by ver¬ 
min. The writing runs from the left to the right, as in the 
languages of Europe. 

Cities and Towns. Of the cities and towns of 
Tibet little is known. The capital is Lassa. 

This capital is situated in a spacious plain, being a small 
city, but the houses are of stone, and are spacious and lofty. 
The noted mountain of Putela, on which stands the palace 
of the Lama, is about seven miles to the east of the cilv. 

Z 2 


27 0 


TIBET. 


Edifices. Among the edifices, the monasteries 
may be first mentioned. Mr. Turner describes that of 
Teshoo Loomboo, as containing three or four hundred 
houses, inhabited by monks, besides temples, mausoleums, 
and the palace of the sovereign pontiff. The buildings are 
all of stone, none less than two stories in height, with flat 
roofs, and parapets composed of heath and brushwood. 
Some of the palaces and fortresses are described and deli¬ 
neated by Mr. Turner; and the architecture seems re¬ 
spectable. The roads amidst the rocky mountains resem¬ 
ble those of Swisserland, and are particularly dangerous 
after rain. 

Manufactures, &c. The chief manufactures of 
Tibet seem to be shawls, and some woollen cloths ; but 
there is a general want of industry ; and the fine undermost 
hair of the goats, from which shawls are manufactured, is 
chiefly sent to Cashmir. The principal exports are to 
China, consisting of gold dust, diamonds, pearls, lamb 
skins, some musk, and woollen cloths. Many of the Chi¬ 
nese imports are manufactured articles. To Nipal, Tibet 
sends rock salt, tincal, or crude borax, and gold dust; re¬ 
ceiving in return base silver coin, copper, rice, and coarse 
cotton cloths. Through Nipal is also carried on the chief 
trade with Bengal, in gold dust, tincal, and musk. The 
returns are broad cloth, spices, trinkets, emeralds, sap¬ 
phires, lazulite, jet, amber, &c. 

Climate. “ In the temperature of the seasons in 
Tibet a remarkable uniformity prevails, as well as in their 
periodical duration and return. The spring is marked, 
from March to May, by a variable atmosphere ; by heat, 
thunder storms, and occasionally with refreshing showers. 
From June to September is the season of humidity, when 
heavy and continued rains fill the rivers to their brim, which 
run off from hence with rapidity to assist in inundating 
Bengal. From October to March a clear and uniform sky 
succeeds, seldom obscured either by fogs or clouds. For 
three months of this season a degree of cold is felt, far 
greater perhaps than is known to prevail in Europe.” 

Soil and Cultivation. From the same intel¬ 
ligent traveller we learn that Bootan, with all its confused 
and shapeless mountains, is covered with eternal verdure, 
ar.d abounds in forests of large and lofty trees. The sides 
of the mountains are improved by the hand of industry, 


TIBET. 


271 


and crowned with orchards, fields, and villages. Tibet 
Proper, on the contrary, exhibits only low, rocky hills, 
without any visible vegetation, or extensive arid plains of 
an aspect equally stern. Yet Tibet produces great abun¬ 
dance and variety of wild fowl and game ; with numerous 
flocks of sheep and goats, and herds of cattle, and is infest¬ 
ed by many beasts of prey. 

The nature of the soil here prohibits the progress of 
agriculture. The vales are commonly laid under water on 
the approach of winter: in the spring they are ploughed and 
sown, while frequent showers, and a powerful sun, contri¬ 
bute speedily to mature the crops. The autumn being clear 
and tranquil, the harvest is long left to dry on the ground, 
and when sufficiently hardened is trod out bv cattle. The 

• j 

course of cultivation is wheat, peas, and barley ; rice being 
confined to a more southern soil. 

Pivers. The chief river of Tibet is, beyond ail 
comparison, the Sampoo or Berhanpootar, which rising in 
the western region, from the same lofty mountains that 
give source to the Ganges, proceeds first in an E. and S. E. 
direction ; then it bends S. W. and flows into the estuary 
of the Ganges, after a farther course of about 400 British 
miles. 

Many other considerable rivers are believed to derive 
their sources from the mountains of Tibet, which may be 
styled the Alps of Asia. 

La kes. These Alpine regions contain, as usual, 

many lakes, the most considerable being represented under 
the name of Terkiri, about 80 British miles in length, and 
25 broad. So great is the severity of the cold, that even 
the smaller lakes in the south of Tibet Proper are in the 
winter frozen to a great depth. 

Mountains. The vast ranges of Tibetan moun¬ 
tains have already been repeatedly mentioned \ but there 
is no accurate geographical delineation of their course and 
extent. 

From these great ranges many branches extend N. and 
S. as in the Alps, and their names may perhaps be traced, 
but with little accuracy, in the general map of Tibet, and 
atlas of the provinces. 

Animals. In Bootan few wild animals are observ¬ 
able, except monkies; but Tibet abounds with game of va¬ 
rious descriptions. The horses are of a small size, but 


272 


TIBET. 


spirited. The cattle are also diminutive. The flocks of 
sheep are numerous, commonly small, with black heads 
and legs; the wool soft, and the mutton excellent. It is 
a peculiarity of the country that the latter food is generally 
eaten raw. When dried in the frosty air it is not disagree¬ 
able in this state, to an European palate. 

The goats are numerous and celebrated for producing a 
fine hair, Which is manufactured into shawls, and which 
lies beneath the exterior coarse coat. Nor must the singu¬ 
lar breed of cattle be forgotten, called Yak by the Tatars, 
covered with thick long hair ; the tail being peculiarly 
flowing and glossy, and an article of luxury in the east, 
where it is used to drive away the flies, and sometimes 
dried for ornaments. 

The musk deer delights in intense cold. The musk, 
which is only found in the male, is formed in a little tu¬ 
mour at the navel; and is the genuine and authentic article 
so styled, being commonly black, and divided by thin 
cuticles. 

Minerals. The mineralogy is best known from 
the account appended to Mr. Turner’s Journey in 1783, 
from which it appears that Bootan does not probably con¬ 
tain any metal except iron, and a small portion of copper ; 
while Tibet Proper, on the contrary, seems to abound with 
rich minerals. Gold is found in great quantities, some¬ 
times in the form of dust, in the beds of rivers, sometimes 
in large masses and irregular veins. There is a lead mine, 
two days journey from Teshoo Lumboo. Cinnabar, rich in 
quicksilver, is also found; and there are strong indications 
of copper. 

The most peculiar product of Tibet is tincal, or crude 
borax, found in a lake about fifteen days journey from 
Teshoo Lumboo. The tincal is deposited or formed in the 
bed of the lake ; and those who go to collect it dig it up in 
large masses, which they afterwards break into small 
pieces for the convenience of carriage, exposing it to the 
air to dry. It is used in Tibet for soldering, and to pro¬ 
mote the fusion of gold and silver. Rock salt is universally 
used for all domestic purposes in Tibet. Bootan and Nipal. 


JAPAN. 



HIE kingdom, or, as it is by some styled, the empire 
ot Japan, has, by most geographers, been classed among 
t le Asiatic isles, and may in some measure be compared 
with Great Britain and Ireland, forming* a grand insular 
power near the eastern extremity of Asia, like that of the 
British isles near the western extremity of Europe. 

fUaico i olo, the father of modern Asiatic geography, 
mentions Japan by the name of Zipangri or Zipangu. The 
inhabitants themselves calf it Nipon or Nifon, and the 
Chinese Sippon and Jepuen. 

Extent. This empire extends from the 30th to 
the 41st degree of N. latitude; and according to the most 
recent maps, from the 131st to the 142d degree of E. lon¬ 
gitude from Greenwich. We shall pass over many smaller 
isles, as by far the most important is that of Nipon. The 
grand isle of Nipon is in length from S. W. to N. E. not less 
than 750 British miles ; but is so narrow in proportion, 
that the medial breadth cannot be assumed above 80, 
though in two projecting* parts it may double that number. 
These islands are divided into provinces and districts, as 
usual in the most civilized countries. 


To the N. of Nipon is another large isle, that of Jesso, 
or Chicha, which having received some Japanese colonies, 
is generally regarded as subject to Japan; but being inha¬ 
bited by a savage people, is rather considered as a foreign 
conquest than as a part of this civilized empire. 

Original Population. The Japanese seem to 
be a kindred race with the Chinese, though, according to 
Kxmpfer, the languages be radically distinct. But if com- 


274 


JAPAN. 


pared with that of Corea, the nearest land, and the latter 
with the Chinese, perhaps a gradation might be observable. 

Historical Epochs. The history of their own 
country is universally studied by the Japanese; and Kaemp- 
fer has produced an elaborate abstract, divided into three 
epochs, the fabulous, the doubtful, and the certain. Pass¬ 
ing by the two first, we shall take notice of the last period. 

The third, or certain period, begins with the hereditary 
succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, styled Dire, from 
the year 660 before the Christian era, to the year of 
Christ, 1 585, during which 107 princes of the same lineage 
governed Japan. At the last period the secular princes 
assumed the supreme authority. In general the reigns are 
pacific; though at very distant intervals the Mandshurs and 
Coreans occasionally invaded Japan, but were always de¬ 
feated by the valour of the inhabitants. In 1585 the ge¬ 
nerals of the crown, or secular emperors, who were also 
hereditary, assumed the supreme power; the Dairisbeing 
afterwards confined, and strictly guarded, that they might 
not reassume their ancient authority. 

Antiquities. The Europeans have not explored 
this country enough to be acquainted with its antiquities, 
if it really possesses any worthy of notice. 

Religion. The established religion of Japan is a 
polytheism, joined with the acknowledgment of a supreme 
creator. There are two principal sects, that ol Sinto and 
that of Budsdo. The first acknowledge a supreme being, 
far superior to the little claims and worship of man, whence 
they adore the inferior deities as mediators, the idea of a 
mediator being interwoven in almost every form of reli¬ 
gion. They abstain from animal food, detest bloodshed, and 
will not touch any dead body. 

The priests are either secular or monastic ; the latter 
alone being entrusted with the mysteries. The festivals 
and modes of worship are cheerful, and even gay ; for they 
regard the gods as beings who solely delight in dispensing 
happiness. Besides the first day of the year, and the three 
or four other grand festivals, the first day of the month is 
always kept as a holiday. There are several orders of 
monks and nuns, as in the Roman Catholic system. 

They believe in the metempsychosis or transmigration 
of souls, the wicked being supposed to migrate into the 
bodies of animals, till they have undergone a due purgation. 


JAPAN. 


275 


Soon after the discovery of this country by the Portu¬ 
guese, Jesuitic missionaries arrived in 1549 ; and their suc¬ 
cessors continued to diffuse their doctrine till 1638, when 
37,000 Christians were massacred. Not contented with 
their station, that intriguing order endeavoured to intro¬ 
duce themselves into the governing councils of the nation. 
Since that memorable epoch Christianity has been held in 
supreme detestation ; and the cross, with its other symbols, 
are annually trampled under foot; but it is a fable that the 
Dutch are constrained to join in this ceremony. 

Government. The Kubo, or secular emperor, is 
now hereditary and sole monarch of the country. Yet oc¬ 
casionally his authority has been controverted ; and Japan 
has been ravaged by many civil wars. The ecclesiastical 
dignities were of six orders, some belonging to particular 
offices, others merely honorary. The secular prince is 
accustomed to confer, with the consent of the dairi, two 
honorary ranks, equivalent to our noblemen and knights. 
The ecclesiastical court is chiefly occupied with literary 
pursuits, the dairi residing at Miaco ; and his court remains 
though not in its former splendour. 

The government of each province is intrusted to a resi¬ 
dent prince, who is strictly responsible for his administra¬ 
tion, his family remaining at the emperor’s court as hos¬ 
tages ; and he is himself obliged to make an annual appear¬ 
ance, the journey being performed with great pomp, and 
accompanied with valuable presents. The emperor, as in 
the feudal times of Europe, derives his chief revenue from 
his own estate, consisting of five inferior provinces, and 
some detached towns. Each Prince enjoys the revenues 
of his fief or government, with which he supports his 
court and military force, repairs the roads and defrays 
every civil expense. 

The superiority of the laws of Japan over those of 
Europe, has been loudly proclaimed by Koempfer. The 
parties themselves appear, and the case is determined with¬ 
out delay. Thunberg informs us that the laws are few, 
but rigidly enforced, without regard to persons, partiality, 
or violence. Most crimes are punished with death ; but 
the sentence must be signed by the privy council at Jedo. 
Parents and relations are made answerable tor the crimes 
of those whose moral education they ought to have super¬ 
intended. The police is excellent, there not only being a 


276 


JAPAN. 


chief magistrate of each town, but a commissary of each 
street, elected by the inhabitants to watch over property 
and tranquillity. Two inhabitants in their turn nightly 
patrole the street to guard against fire. 

The best proof that the laws are salutary is that few 
crimes are committed, and few punishments are inflicted. 
The brief code, according to Thunberg, is posted up in 
every town and village, in large letters, on a spot sur¬ 
rounded with rails. 

Population. All travellers agree that the popu¬ 
lation is surprising, although a great part of the country 
be mountainous. Thunberg observes that the capital Jedo, 
is said to be o3 British miles in circumference, and at any 
rate rivals Pekin in size. Kaempfer says that the number 
of people daily travelling on the highways is inconceiva¬ 
ble, and the tokaido , the chief of the seven great roads, is 
sometimes more crowded than the most frequented streets 
of European capitals. Perhaps a pretty safe estimate may 
be formed of the population of Japan by supposing it to 
equal that of China ; and the former country being about 
one tenth part the size of the latter, the population will of 
course be about 30,000,000. 

Army, Ssc. The army has been estimated by Vare- 
nius at more than half a million ; and the character of 
the people is singularly brave and resolute. The navy, 
like that of the other oriental powers, is beneath notice. 
The Japanese vessels are open at the stern, so that they 
cannot bear a boisterous sea. 

Revenues. The revenues of this empire are stat¬ 
ed by Varenius at 2834 tons of gold, on the Flemish mode 
of computation ; and taking the ton at only 10,0004 ster¬ 
ling, the amount would be 28,340,000/. sterling, besides 
the provinces and cities which are immediately subject to 
the emperor. The emperor besides the large revenues of 
his provinces, has a considerable treasure in gold and sil¬ 
ver, disposed in chests of 1000 taels, or thayls, each being 
nearly in value to a Dutch rix dollar, or about four shillings 
and four pence English money. 

Manners and Customs.. “ The people of this 
nation are well made, active, free and easy in their motions, 
with stout limbs, although their strength is not to be com¬ 
pared to that of the northern inhabitants of Europe. They 
are of a yellowish colour all over, sometimes bordering on 


JAPAN. 


2 77 


brown, and sometimes on white. Ladies of distinction, 
who seldom go out in the open air without being covered, 
are perfectly white. It is by their eyes, that, like the Chi¬ 
nese, these people are distinguishable. These organs ha^ve 
not that rotundity which those of other nations exhibit; but 
are oolong, small, and are sunk deeper in the head, in conse- 
quence of which these people have almost the appearance 
ot being pink-eyed. Their heads are in general large, and 
their necks short; their hair black, thick, and shining, from 
he use they make of oils. Their noses, though not flat, 
are yet rather thick and short.” 

This highly civilized people are supposed to be free from 
the mean tricks of the maritime Chinese. They use great 
varieties of rood and sauces. The master or mistress of the 
house is not harassed with the trouble of Carving, the meat 
:>eing pieviously cut into smalLpieces, served up in basons 
ot porcelain, or japanned wood. The general drink is 
sacAi, or beer made of rice ; which last article also supplies 
the place of bread. They use many kinds of vegetables and 
truits. 1 he use of tea is also universal; but wine and spi- 
ritcms liquors are unknown. The use of tobacco seems 
to have been introduced by the Portuguese ; and the prac¬ 
tice of smoking has become general. 

1 he houses of the Japanese are of wood, coloured white, 
so as to resemble stone: and though roomy and commo¬ 
dious, never exceed two stories in height, the upper serv¬ 
ing for lofts and garrets, and seldom being occupied. Each 
house forms but one room, which may be divided into 
apartments at pleasure, by moveable partitions sliding in 
grooves. They use neither chairs nor tables, sitting on 
straw mats, the meal being served apart to each on a small 
square wooden salver. 

1 he dress consists of trowsers: and what we call night 
gowns, or loose robes of silk or cotton, are universally worn 
by both sexes. These are fastened by a girdle ; the num¬ 
ber being increased according to the coldness of the wea- 
thei. otockings are not usedj and the shoes are common¬ 
ly of rice straw. The men shave the head from the fore¬ 
head to the nape, but the hair on the sides is turned up 
and fastened at the crown of the head : conical hats made 
of grass are worn on journeys, but the fashion of wearing 
the hair forms the common economical covering of the 
head. 

A a 


378 


JAPAN. 


Language. Thunberg has published a curious 
vocabulary of the Japanese language, which seems indeed 
to have little connexion with the monosyllabic speech of 
the Chinese. There are also dictionaries drawn up by the 
Jesuits. 

Literature. In the sciences and literature the 
Japanese yield to few of the oriental nations. This sensible 
people study house-keeping, or domestic economy, as an 
indispensable science ; and next to this every Japanese is 
versed in the history of his country. Astronomy is culti¬ 
vated, but has not arrived at much perfection. They sur¬ 
vey with tolerable accuracy ; and their maps are as exact 
as their imperfect instruments will permit. The art of 
printing is ancient, but they use blocks, not moveable 
types, and only impress one side of the paper. Some of 
their arts and manufactures even surpass those of Europe. 
There are excellent workmen in iron and copper; and to 
no eastern country do they yield in manufactures of silk 
and cotton ; while in varnishing wood they are well known 
to have no equals. Glass is also common ; and they even 
form telescopes. The porcelain is deemed superior to that 
of China. Their swords display incomparable skill; and 
many varieties of paper are prepared from the bark of a 
species of mulberry tree. 

There are many schools in which the children are 
taught to read and write; their education being accom¬ 
plished without the degradation of personal chastisement, 
while courage is instilled by the repetition of songs in 
praise of deceased heroes. 

Cities and Towns. The capital city of the Ja¬ 
panese empire is Jedo, centrically situated on a bay in the 
8. E. side of the chief island Nipon. The houses never 
exceed two stories, with numerous shops towards the 
streets. The harbour is so shallow that an European ship 
would be obliged to anchor at the distance of five leagues. 
Afire happened in this city in the year 1772, which is said 
to have consumed six leagues in length, and three in 
breadth: and earthquakes are here familiar as in other re¬ 
gions of Japan. The emperor’s palace is surrounded with 
stone walls, and ditches with draw bridges, forming of itself 
a considerable town, said to be five leagues in circum¬ 
ference. 


JAPAN. 


279 


Miaco, the spiritual capital, and second city of the em¬ 
pire is placed in an inland situation about 160 miles S. W. 
from Jedo, on a level plain. Yet it is the first commercial 
city, and is celebrated for the principal manufactures. It 
is also the seat of the imperial mint: and the Dairi’s court 
being* literary, all books are printed here. Kaempfer in¬ 
forms us, that upon an enumeration taken in 1674, the in¬ 
habitants were found to amount to 405,642, of whom were 
males 182,070 ; and 223,572 females, without including* 
the numerous attendants of the Dairi. 

Edifices. The imperial palace, like those of the 
Chinese, consists of many dwellings, occupying an im¬ 
mense space. The saloon of the hundred mats is 600 feet 
in length by 300 in breadth. There is a high square tower 
which consists of several stages richly decorated ; and most 
of the roofs are ornamented with golden dragons. The 
pillars and ceilings are of cedar, camphor, and other pre¬ 
cious woods ; but the only furniture consists of white mats, 
fringed with gold. As might be expected among so in¬ 
dustrious a people, the roads seem to be maintained in ex¬ 
cellent order. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The inland 
commerce is very considerable, being free and exempted 
from imposts. The harbours are crowded with large and 
small vessels; the high roads with various goods; and the 
shops well replenished. Large fairs ar.e also held in dif¬ 
ferent places, to which there is a great concourse of peo¬ 
ple. The trade with China is the most important, consist¬ 
ing of raw silk, sugar, turpentine, drugs, &c. while the ex¬ 
ports are copper in bars, lackered ware, &c. The Japanese 
coins are of remarkable form, the gold being called Ko- 
bangs. The silver called Kodama sometimes represents 
Daikok, the god of riches, sitting upon two barrels of rice, 
with a hammer in his right hand, and a sack at his left. 

Climate and Seasons. The heat of summer is 
in Japan extremely violent, and would be insupportable, 
were not the air cooled by the sea breezes. Equally se¬ 
vere is the cold in winter, when the wind blows from the 
north or north-east. There are abundant falls of rain, 
especially in the rainy months, which begin at midsummer, 
and this is the chief cause of the fertility of Japan. 

Thunder is not unfrequent; and tempests, hurricanes, 
and earthquakes are very common. The greatest degree 


280 


JAPAN. 


of heat, at Nagasaki was 98°, in the month of August; and? 
4he severest cold in January 35°. 

Face of th* Country, Vegetable and Animal 
Productions. Though there be some plains of consider¬ 
able extent, yet the country in general consists of mountains, 
hills, and valleys, the coast being mostly rocky and precipit¬ 
ous, and invested "with a turbulent sea. The soil in itself may 
be said to be rather barren ; but the prolific showers con¬ 
spire with labour and manure to overcome even this obsta¬ 
cle. Agriculture is a science in the highest estimation with 
this sensible people, so that except the most barren and uir- 
tractable mountains, the earth is universally cultivated; 
and even most of the mountains and hills. If any portion 
be found uncultivated it may be seized by a more indus¬ 
trious neighbour. Manure is laid upon the plants, when 
they have attained the height of about six inches, so that 
they instantly receive the whole benefit, and weeding is 
carried to the utmost degree of nicety. 

Rice is the chief grain; buck-wheat, rye, barley, and 
wheat being little used. The sweet potatoe is abundant; 
with several sorts of beans and peas, turnips, cabbages, &c. 
The rice is sown in April, and gathered in November: in 
which last month the wheat is sown, and reaped in June. 
The barley also stands the winter. From the seed of a 
kind of cabbage lamp-oil is expressed ; and several plants 
are cultivated for dying; there are also cotton shrubs, and 
mulberry trees, which last feed abundance of silk worms. 
The varnish and camphor trees, the vine, the cedar, the 
tea tree, and the bamboo reed, not only grow wild, but are 
planted for numerous uses. 

Rivers. The rivers of Nipon have not been deli¬ 
neated with much care. Among the few named are the 
Nogafa, the Jedogawa, and the^ Ojingava; of which we 
know little more than the names; the last is one of the 
largest and most dangerous in the country, though not sub¬ 
ject, like the others, to swell during rains. 

Lakes. One of the chief lakes seems to be that 
of Oitz, which emits two rivers, one towards Miaco, the 
other towards Osaka, and it is said to be fifty Japanese 
leagues in length, each about an hour’s journey on horse¬ 
back ; but the breadth is inconsiderable. 

Mountains. The principal Japanese mountain is 
that of Fusi, covered with snow almost throughout the 


JAPAN. 


281 


year. The Fakonie mountains are in the same quarter^ 
surrounding a small lake of the same name. 

Near the lake of Oitz is the delightful mountain of Je- 
san * which is esteemed sacred, and is said to present not 
less than 3000 temples. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
ginger, the soy-bean, black pepper, sugar, cotton, and in¬ 
digo, though perhaps natives of the more southern re¬ 
gions of Asia, are cultivated here with great success, 
and in vast abundance. The Indian laurel and the cam¬ 
phor tree are found in the high central parts of Japan, as 
is also the rhus vernix, from the bark of which exudes 
a gum resin that is supposed to be the basis of the exqui¬ 
sitely beautiful and inimitable black varnish. Besides the 
common sweet or China orange, another species, the ci¬ 
trus japonica, is found wild. Two kinds of mulberry are 
met with, both in an indigenous and cultivated state, the 
one valuable as the favourite food of the silk worm, the other 
esteemed for the white fibres of its inner bark, which are 
manufactured into paper. The larch, the cypress, and weep¬ 
ing willow, the opium, poppy, white lily, and jalap, are found 
here. The trumpet-flower (bignonia catalpa) is common to 
this part of Asia and Peru ; in which circumstance it resem¬ 
bles the vanilla, whose berries form an article of commerce, 
being largely used in the preparation of chocolate. The 
tallow tree, the plantain, the cocoa-nut tree, and two other 
palms, adorn the wood-land tracts, especially near the 
sea-shore, by the variety of their growth and foliage. 

Neither sheep nor goats are found in the whole empire 
of Japan ; the latter being deemed mischievous to cultiva* 
tion, while the abundance of cotton recompenses the want 
of wool. Swine are also deemed pernicious to agriculture ; 
and only a few appear in the neighbourhood of Nagasaki. 
The number of horses in the empire were computed by 
Thunberg as only equal to those of a single Swedish town. 
Still fewer cattle are seen; as the Japanese neithei use 
their flesh nor their milk, but employ them only in plough¬ 
ing or drawing carts. The food consists almost entirely 
of fish and fowl", with vegetables. Hens and common ducks 
are domesticated, chiefly on account of their eggs. A few 
dogs are kept from motives of superstition ; and the cats 

are favourites of the ladies. 

A a2 


282 


JAPAN. 


There are some wolves and foxes: these last being uni¬ 
versally detested, and considered as demons incarnate. 

Minerals. “ That the precious metals, gold and 
silver, are to be found in abundance in the empire of Japan 
has been well known, both to the Portuguese, who former¬ 
ly exported whole ship loads of them, and to the Dutch in 
former times. Gold is found in several parts, and perhaps 
Japan may in this respect contest the palm with the richest 
country in the world : but in order that this metal may not 
lose its value, by becoming too plentiful, it is prohibited to 
dig more than a certain stated quantity ; not to mention 
that no metallic mine, of any kind whatever, can be opened 
and wrought without the emperor’s express permission. 

“ Copper is quite common in every part of the empire, 
and is richly impregnated with gold, constituting the main 
source of the wealth of many provinces. It was not onlv 
formei ly cxpoi ted in amazing quantities, but still continues 
to be exported, both by the Dutch and Chinese merchants. 

“ B’on seems to be scarcer than any other metal in this 
country. 

“ Brimstone is found in great abundance in Japan. Pit- 
coal is likewise to be met with in the northern provinces.” 


THE BIRMAN EMPIRE. 


COMPRISING THE 

KINGDOMS OF AVA AND PEGU. 


THE Birman empire derives its name from the Bir- 
mahs, who have been long known as a warlike nation in 
the region formerly styled India beyond the Ganges ; 
the capital city of their kingdom being Ava or Awa. Pegu 
is by the natives styled Bagoo; being the country situated 
to the south of the former, and justly inferred to have been 
the Golden Chersonese of the ancients. 

Extent and Boundaries. It is difficult to as¬ 
certain with precision the boundaries of the Birman em¬ 
pire. Mr. Symes informs us, that “ it appears to include 
the space between the 9th and 26th degree of north lati¬ 
tude, and between the 92d and 107th degree of longitude 
east of Greenwich ; about 1050 geographical miles in 
length, and 600 in medial breadth. 

To the north the Birman empire is divided by mountains 
from Asam, a country little visited or known ; and farther 
to the east it borders on Tibet and China. On the west a 
range of mountains and the little river Naaf divide the 
Birman possessions from the British dominions in Bengal; 
and the limit is continued by the sea. But the southern 
and eastern boundaries still remain obscure. 

Original Population. The original population 
of this region can be only guessed at. It is probably a 
branch of the great Hindoo family. 

History. The Birmans, a brave and warlike race 
formerly subject to the king of Pegu, became afterwards 




284 


BIRMAN EMPIRE. 


masters of Ava, and caused a revolution in the former 
country about the middle of the sixteenth century, when 
they took Martaban. 

They continued to exercise their supremacy over Pegu 
till about the year 1740, when a civil war arose, during 
which the Peguese in 1750 and 1751 gained several vic¬ 
tories over the Birmans; and in 1752 Ava was besieged 
and taken. 

When Binga Della, king of Pegu, had completed the 
conquest of Ava, he returned to his own country. All 
wore the aspect of tranquil submission, when Alompra, a 
Birman of low extraction, who was only the chief of a 
small village, with one hundred devoted followers, attacked 
a band of fifty Peguese, whom he put to the sword : he 
afterwards defeated a small force sent against him ; and 
about the autumn of 1753, took possession of Ava, w hile 
the Peguese government seems to have been lost by mere 
infatuation. Alompra proceeding in his conquests, founded 
the town now well known by the name of Rangoon, which 
signifies “ victory achieved.” In 1756 he blockaded Syrian, 
which yielded to his arms; he next advanced against the 
city of Pegu, situated on an extensive plain, and then sur¬ 
rounded with no mean fortifications, while the stupendous 
pagoda of Shomadoo served as a citadel. This capital 
was invested in January 1757, and in about three months 
became a prey to the Birmans. 

Alompra next determined to chastise the Siamese, for 
the encouragement they had given to his rebellious sub¬ 
jects, and ordered a fleet.to sail to Merghi, a sea-port be¬ 
longing to the Siamese, which was easily taken, and was 
followed by the conquest of T anaserim a large and popu¬ 
lous city. 

The victor next advanced against the capital of Siam ; 
but tw o days after the siege had commenced, Alompra was 
seized with a deadly disease, which saved the Siamese from 
destruction. He died within two days march of Martaban, 
about the 15th IV ay. 1766, regretted by his people, who at 
once venerated him as their deliverer, and as a great and 
victorious monarch. 

Sliembuen, second son of Alompra, continued the war 
against Siam; and in 1766 two armies entered that 
country from the N. and S. and, being united, defeated the 
Siamese about seven days journey from their capital. After 


BIRMAN EMPIRE. 


285 


a blockade of two months the city capitulated; a Siamese 
governor being appointed who swore allegiance to the Bir¬ 
man sovereignty, and engaged to pay an annual tribute. 

I he Chinese, apprehensive of the progress of these con¬ 
quests, advanced an army from the province of Yunnan, but 
wel’e completely defeated by the Birmans. The Siamese 
though vanquished remained unsubdued ; and there is an 
inveterate enmity betwixt the nations, which will prevent 
either servitude or alliance. A Siamese prince assumed 
the monarchy, and in 1771, defeated the Birmans, while the 
arms of Shembuen were employed in the conquest of Ca- 
char. He died at Ava in 1776, and was succeeded by his 
son Chenguza, whose tyrannical conduct occasioned a con¬ 
spiracy in 1782, at the head of which was Shembuen Min- 
deragee, the present monarch, younger brother of thede- 
ceased Shembuen. 

Minderagee determined to pass the mountains of Anou- 
pec, and subdue Aracan. This conquest was commenced 
in 1783, and was speedily effected. 

1 he Birman arms were now once more turned against 
Siam, and in 1785 a fleet was sent to subdue the isle of 
Junkseilon. Meeting with a repulse, the Birman monarch 
left his capital at the head of 80,000 men, with a train of 
20 field pieces; but was defeated by the king of Siam, who 
in his turn failed in an invasion of the Birman possessions 
to the south. In 1793 a treaty was ratified between the 
Birmans and Siamese, by which the latter ceded the wes¬ 
tern maritime towns as far S. as Merghi inclusive. But 
with this exception, and that of some northern provinces, 
the Siamese monarchy retains a considerable portion of its 
ancient fame. Hence it appears that the Birman empire 
can scarcely be computed to extend beyond the 102d de¬ 
gree of longitude, and that only in the part to the north of 
Siam. 

Religion. The Birmans follow the worship of 
Hindostan. They believe in the transmigration of souls, 
after which the radically bad will be condemned to lasting 
punishment, while the good shall enjoy eternal happiness 
in the mountain Meru. 

Laws and Government. u The Birman sys¬ 
tem of jurisprudence is replete with sound morality, and is 
distinguished above any other Hindoo commentary for 
perspicuity and good sense ; it provides specifically for 


286 


BIRMAN EMPIRE. 


almost every species of crime that can be committed, and 
adds a copious chapter of precedents and decisions, to 
guide the inexperienced in cases where there is doubt and 
difficulty. Like the immortal Menu, it tells the prince and 
the magistrate their duties in language austere, manly, 
and energetic.” 

Though the form of government be despotic, yet the 
Ling consults a council of ancient nobles. There are no 
hereditary dignities nor employments : on the demise of 
the possessor, they revert to the crown. Rank is also de¬ 
noted by chains, with various divisions (3, 6, 9, or 12) and by 
the form and material of various articles in common use. 

Population. Colonel Symes states the popula¬ 
tion of the Birman dominions at 17,000,000, confessedly 
however the result of a very vague estimate. 

Army and Navy. Every man in the empire is li¬ 
able to military service, but the regular army is very in¬ 
considerable. During war the viceroys raise one recruit 
from every two, three, or four houses, which otherwise 
pay a fine of about 401. sterling. The family of the soldier 
is detained as hostages, and in case of cowardice or deser¬ 
tion suffer death; a truly tyrannic mode of securing allegi¬ 
ance. But the war boats form the chief military establish¬ 
ment, consisting of about 500, formed out of the solid 
trunk of the teak tree. They carry from 50 to 60 rowers, 
the prow being solid, with a flat surface, on which a piece 
of ordnance is mounted. Each rower is provided with a 
sword and lance, and there are 30 soldiers armed with 
muskets. 

Revenues. The revenue arises from one tenth of 
all produce, and of foreign goods imported : the amount 
is uncertain: but it is supposed that the monarch possess¬ 
es immense treasures. 

Manners and Customs. The general disposi¬ 
tion of the Birmans is as strikingly contrasted with that 
of the Hindoos, as if they had been situated at the oppo¬ 
site extremities of the globe. The Birmans are a lively 
inquisitive race, active, irascible, and impatient; the un¬ 
worthy passion of jealousy, which prompts most nations of 
the east to immure their women within the walls of an lia- 
ram, seems to have scarcely any influence over the minds 
of this extraordinary and more liberal people. Birman 
wives and daughters are not concealed from the sight of 
men, and are suffered to have as free intercourse with each 


Birman empire. 


287 


other, as the rules of European society admit; but in 
other respects women have just reason to complain of their 
treatment; they are considered as not belonging to the 
same scale of the nation as men, and are generally occu¬ 
pied in the labours of the loom. In war the men display 
the ferocity of savages, while in peace they can boast a 
considerable degree of gentleness and civilization. They 
are fond of poetry and music, and among their instruments 
is the heem, resembling the ancient pipe of Pan, formed 
of several reeds neatly joined together. 

Language and Literature. The alphabet re¬ 
presents 33 simple sounds, and is written from left to right 
like the European. The Birman books are more neatly 
executed than those of the Hindoos, and in every kioul or 
monastery, there is a library or repository of books. Co¬ 
lonel Symes was surprised at the number contained in the 
royal library, in which the large diests amounted to about 
100. The books were regularly classed, and the contents 
of each chest were written in gold letters on the lid. 

Cities. The new capital Ummerapoora, with its 
spires, turrets, and lofty obelisk, denoting the royal pre¬ 
sence, seems to rise like Venice, from the waters, being 
placed between a lake on the S. E. and a large river with 
numerous isles on the N. W. The number and singulari¬ 
ty of the boats moored in the lake, and the surrounding 
amphitheatre of lofty hills, conspire to render the scene 
grand and interesting. The fort is an exact square, with 
public granaries and store rooms ; and there is a gilded tem¬ 
ple at each corner, nearly 100 feet in height, but far infe¬ 
rior to others in the vicinity of the capital. In the centre 
of this fort stands the royal palace, with a wide court in 
front, beyond which is the Lotoo, or hall of council, sup¬ 
ported by 77 pillars, disposed in eleven rows. 

Ava, formerly the capital, is in a state of ruin. “ The 
walls are now mouldering into decay, ivy clings to the 
sides, and bushes suffered to grow at the bottom, under¬ 
mine the foundation, and have already caused large chasms 
in the different faces of the fort. The lines of the royal 
palace, of the Lotoo or grand council hall, the apartments 
of the women, and the spot on which the piasath or impe¬ 
rial spire had stood, together with all the other buildings 
exhibit a most striking picture of desolation and ruin. 

Pegu, formerly the capital of a kingdom, is also in ru¬ 
ins ; having been razed by Alompra, in 1757, the praws 


288 


BIRMAN EMPIRE. 


or temples being spared; and of these the vast pyramid 
of Shomadoo has alone been reverenced, and kept in re¬ 
pair. It is seated on a double terrace, one side of the 
lower being 1391 feet, of the upper 684. The building is 
composed of brick and mortar, octagonal at the base, and 
spiral at the top, without any cavity or aperture. At the 
summit is a Tee, or sacred umbrella, of open iron 
work gilt, 56 feet in circumference; the height of the whole 
being 361 feet, and above the inner terrace 331 feet. Tra¬ 
dition bears that it was founded about 500 years before 
Christ. 

One of the chief ports of the Birman empire, is Ran¬ 
goon, which though, like the capital, of recent founda¬ 
tion, is supposed to contain 30,000 souls. 

The grand river of Irrawady is bordered with numer¬ 
ous towns and villages. Persain, or Bassien, stands on 
its western branch. At a considerable distance to the north 
is Prome, celebrated as the scene of many long sieges 
and bloody conflicts. The number of inhabitants exceed:* 
that of Rangoon. 

Edifices. The most remarkable edifice is the 
Shomadoo before described. The Kioums are often ©f 
singularly rich and fantastic architecture. Colonel Symes 
has published a view of the grand hall of audience, perhaps 
as splendid an edifice as can well be executed in wood. 
His reception at the “ golden feet,” such is the term used 
for the imperial presence, was also remarkably grand, the 
pomp in some degree corresponding with that of the an¬ 
cient Byzantine emperors. 

Manufactures. The Birmans excel in gilding, 
and several other ornamental manufactures. The edifices 
and barges are constructed with singular oriental taste and 
elegance. 

A considerable trade is carried on between the capital 
and Yunan, the nearest province of China, consisting 
chiefly in cotton, with amber, ivory, precious stones, and 
betel nut; the returns being raw and wrought silks, vel¬ 
vets, gold leaf, preserves, paper, and some utensils of hard 
ware. European broad cloth and hard ware, coarse Ben¬ 
gal muslins, China ware, and glass, are imported by fo¬ 
reigners. The Birmans, like the Chinese, have no coin : 
but silver in bullion, and lead are current. 

Climate and Seasons. The vigorous health of 
the natives attest? the salubrity of the climate, the seasons 


BIRMAN EMPIRE. 28 ( J 

being regular, and the extremes of heat and cold little 
known. 

Soil and Produce. “ The soil of the southern 
provinces of the Birman empire is remarkably fertile, and 
produces as luxuriant crops of rice as are to be found in 
the finest parts of Bengal. Farther northward the country 
becomes irregular and mountainous ; but the plains and 
valleys, particularly near the river, are exceedingly fruit¬ 
ful ; they yield good wheat, and the various kinds of small 
grain which grow in Hindostan; as likewise legumes and 
most of the esculent vegetables of India. Sugar canes 
tobacco of a superior quality, indigo, cotton, and the dif¬ 
ferent tropical fruits in perfection, are all indigenous pro¬ 
ducts of this favoured land.” 1 

Rivers. The geography of the rivers is yet im¬ 
perfect. The chief river is the Irrawady, which, probably 
passes by Moguang to Bamoo, and thence by Ummera- 
poora and Prome towards the sea, which it joins by many 
mouths, after a comparative course of near 1200'British 
miles. 

Mountains. It is probable that the highest range 
of mountains is on the frontiers of Tibet, of which and the 
other ranges we have no satisfactory delineations. 

\ EGETABLE AND ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. It is 
in those parts of the torrid zone that abound with water, 
and where, from the influence of the monsoons, the country 
is extensively flooded every year, that vegetation assumes 
a vigour and sublimity wholly inconceivable by the natives 
of more temperate climates : everlasting verdure, grace, 
and majesty of form, height and amplitude of growth, are 
the distinguishing attributes of their trees, compared with 
which the monarchs of our forests sink into vegetables o£ 
an inferior order: the same exuberance of nature is con¬ 
spicuous in their shrubs and herbaceous plants, in their 
blossoms anti their fruits, whose vivid brilliancy of colour, 
singularity of shape, aromatic fragrance, and exalted fla¬ 
vour, reduce to relative insignificance the puny produce of 
European summers. 

Here rises, in proud magnificence the white sandal 
tree, whose fragrant wood is in high request through the 
whole east for the grateful odour of its smoke. The teak 
tree (tectona theca) is at least equal even to British oak as a 
durable material, for ship building: the true jet black ebony 


290 


BIRMAN EMPIRE. 


wood is the produce of one of the indigenous trees of Co¬ 
chin China. The sycamore fig, the Indian fig, and the 
banyan tree itself a grove, by the breadth of their leaves 
and the luxuriance of their foliage, afford a most delicious 
shelter, impenetrable even by the meridian ardour of an 
Indian sun. 

The ginger and cardamom, two pleasant aromatics, are 
found wild on the river sides ; the turmeric, whose princi¬ 
pal use in Europe is as a dying drug, is used by the natives 
to tinge and flavour their rice and other food : the leaves of 
the betel pepper, with the fruit of the black and long pep¬ 
per, are the most favourite of their native spices, to which 
may also be added three or four kinds of capsicum. The 
cinnamon laurel grows in abundance, and sometimes ac¬ 
companied by the nutmeg. The sugar cane, the bamboo, 
and the spikenard, are found throughout the whole coun¬ 
try ; as are the sweet potatoe, mad apple and love apple, 
gourds, melons, water melons, and a profusion of other 
esculent plants; the plantain, the mango and pine apple, 
the cocoa nut, and sago palm. 

The animals in general correspond with those of Hindos- 
tan. Elephants principally abound in Pegu. The horses 
are small but spirited. A kind of wild fowl called the henza, 
and by the Hindoos the braminy goose, has been adopted as 
the symbol of the empire, like the Roman eagle. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of this region, the 
Golden Chersonese of the ancients, is opulent, and some 
products rather singular. The rivers of Pegu still con¬ 
tinue to devolve particles of gold ; and their sands must in 
Stncient times have been yet more prolific of that precious 
metal; as is evinced by the practice of gilding the roofs 
and spires of temples and palaces, and this splendid appear¬ 
ance might naturally give rise to the classical appellation 
of the country. Mines of gold, silver, rubies, and sap¬ 
phires are at present open on a mountain called Wooboloo- 
taun, near the river Keen Duem. Amber also, extremely 
pure and pellucid, is dug up in large quantities. 


MALAYA, OR MALACCA. 


THE peninsula appended to the Birman territories on 
the south is styled Malaya or Malacca. 

The Portuguese are regarded as the first discoverers of 
Malacca in 1509 , to which they were led by the vain idea 
of finding the golden Chersonese of the ancients. In 1511 
they conquered the peninsula, and held it till 1641, when 
it was seized by the Dutch. 

The modern limits are not strictly defined; but Malacca 
is about 8 ?, or 560 British miles in length, by about 150 
miles of medial breadth, a territory sufficiently ample for 
a powerful monarchy, had its native productions corre¬ 
sponded with its extent. 

Language. The Malayan language has been call¬ 
ed the Italian of the east, from the melody of frequent 
vowels and liquids. 

The Arabic character is made use of. They write on 
paper, vising ink of their own composition, and pens made 
of the twigs of a tree. 

Products. The indolence of the inhabitants has 
prevented the country from being explored ; but it pro¬ 
duces pepper, and other spices, with some precious gums 
and woods. The wild elephants supply abundance of ivory ; 
but the tin, the only mineral mentioned, may perhaps be 
the produce of Banka. 

The city of Malacca, which seems to have been founded 
by Mahometans in the thirteenth century, in the last 
century was supposed to contain 12,000 inhabitants, of 
which however only 3000 dwelled within the walls. Not 
above 300 were native Portuguese, the others being a 
mixed race of Mahometan Malays, accounted among the 
chief merchants of the east. 




292 


MALAYA, OR MALACCA. 


In general the Malays are a well made -people, though 
rather below the middle stature, their limbs well shaped, 
but small, and particularly slender at the wrists and ancles, 
i heir complexion is tawny, their eyes large, their nose-a 
seem rather flattened by art than nature ; and their hair is 
very long, black, and shining. 

Besides the tiger and elephant, Malacca produces the 
civet cat described by Sonnerat, who also mentions that 
wild men are found in this peninsula, perhaps the noted 
Orang Outangs 

1 hey are restless, fond of navigation, war, plunder, 
emigrations, colonies, desperate enterprises, adventures, 
and gallantry. They talk incessantly of their honour and 
their bravery, whilst they are universally considered by 
those with whom they have intercourse as the most treach¬ 
erous ferocious people on the face of the globe ; and yet 
they speak the softest language of Asia. How much are 
they like a certain well known European nation ? 

I his ferocity is so well known to the European naviga¬ 
tors that they universally avoid taking on board any sea¬ 
men of that nation, except in the greatest distress, and then 
on no account to exceed two or three. 

Opposite to the coast of Malacca, though at a consider¬ 
able distance, are the islands of Andaman and of Nicobar, 
i he great Andaman is about 140 British miles in length, 
but not more than 20 in the greatest breadth.—The people 
of the Andamans are as little civilized as any in the world, 
and are probably cannibals. They have woolly heads, and 
perfectly resemble negroes. Their character is truly 
brutal, insidious, and ferocious, and their canoes of the 
rudest kind. A British settlement has been recently form¬ 
ed on the Greater Andaman and some convicts sent thither 
from Bengal. The natives, about 2000, have already pro¬ 
fited by the example of English industry. 

The Nicobars are three ; the largest being about five 
leagues in circumference. They produce cocoa and areca 
trees, with yams and sweet potatoes ; and the eatable birds’ 
nests, so highly esteemed in China, abound here as well 
as in the Andamans. The people are of a copper colour, 
with small oblique eyes and other Tatar features. In their 
dress, a small stripe of cloth hangs down behind ; and hence 
the ignorant tales of seamen which led even Linnseus to 
infer that some kind of men had tails. 


SIAM. 


Extent and Boundaries. THE extent of 
the Siamese dominions cannot be accurately defined. On 
the west a chain of mountains seems to divide Siam 
from Pegu ; but the northern province of Yunshan would 
appear to be in the hands of the Birmans, who here 
seem to extend to the river Maykang. To the south and 
east the ancient boundaries are fixed; the ocean, and a 
chain of mountains, dividing Siam from Laos and Cambodia. 

The length of the kingdom may be about ten degrees, or 
near 700 British miles; but of this about one half is not 
above 70 miles in medial breadth. 

Historical Epochs. The Siamese history is 
imperfect, and abounds with fables. Their epoch is de¬ 
rived from the pretended disparition of their god Sammo- 
na Codam (or Boodh): yet by Loubere’s account their first 
king began to reign in the year 1 300 of their epoch, or 
about 756 years after the Christian era. Wars with Pegu, 
and occasional usurpations of the throne, constitute the 
hinges of Siamese history since the Portuguese discovery. 
In 1568 the Peguese king declared war on account of two 
white elephants which the Siamese refused to surrender, 
and after prodigious slaughter on both sides Siam became 
tributary to Pegu. But about 1620 Raja Hapi delivered 
his crown from this servitude. In 1680 Phalcon, a Greek 
adventurer, being highly favoured by the king of Siam, 
opeiied an intercourse with France, An the view of sup¬ 
porting his ambitious'designs ; but they were punished by 
his decapitation in 1689 , and the French connexion ceased 
in consequence. The latter events of Siamese history may 
partly be traced in that of the Birman empire 

B b 2 




294 


SIAM. 


Religion, Laws and Government. The reli¬ 
gion of the Siamese, like that of the Birmans, resembles 
that of the Hindoos; and the transmigration of souls forms 
an essential part of the doctrine ; but they imitate the Chi¬ 
nese in their festival of the dead, and in some other rites 
of that singular nation. 

The government of Siam is despotic ; and the sovereign, 
as among the Birmans, revered with honours almost 
divine. The succession to the crown is hereditary in the 
male line. 

The laws are represented by all writers on this country 
as extremely severe, death or mutilation being punish¬ 
ments even of unimportant offences. 

Population. Concerning the population of Siam 
there are no adequate documents. YetLoubere assures us, 
that from actual enumeration, there are only found of men, 
women, and children, one million nine hundred thousand. 

Army. The army which may be occasionally 
raised, has been estimated at 60,000, with not less than 
5000 or 4000 elephants. 

Navy. The navy is composed of vessels of various 
sizes, some of which are ri-chly decorated. Hence, as in 
the Birman history, naval engagements are not uncom¬ 
mon ; and the large rivers of exterior India are often red¬ 
dened with human gore. 

Manners and Customs. Siam having embraced 
a branch of Hindoo faith, the manners of the people are 
assimilated in a great degree. 

The women are under few restraints, and are married 
at an early age. The espousals are concluded by female 
mediation ; and on the third visit the parties are considered 
as wedded, after the exchange of a few presents, without 
any farther ceremony civil or sacred. Polygamy is allow¬ 
ed ; but rather from ostentation than any other motive. 

The Siamese funerals considerably resemble those of the 
Chinese. The body is inclosed in a wooden bier or var¬ 
nished coffin ; and the monks, called Talapoins, sing hymns 
in the Bali tongue. After a solemn procession the body is 
burnt on a funeral pile of precious woods, erected near 
some temple. 

The common nourishment of the Siamese consists in rice 
and fish, both which articles are abundant. They also eat 
lizards, rats, and several kinds of insects. 


SIAM. 


295 


The houses are small, and constructed of bamboos up¬ 
on pillars, to guard against inundations so common in this 
country. Even the palaces only exceed the common habi¬ 
tations by occupying a more extensive space, and being of 
a greater height, but never exceed one floor. 

In person the Siamese are rather small, but well made. 
The figure of their countenance, both of men and women, 
has less of the oval than of the lozenge form, being broad, 
and raised at the top of the cheeks ; and the forehead sud¬ 
denly contracts, and is almost as pointed as the chin, their 
eyes rising somewhat towards the temples, are small 
and dull: the mouth is very large, with thick pale lips, and 
teeth blackened by art. The complexion is coarse, being 
brown mixed with red, to which the climate greatly con¬ 
tributes. 

The dress is extremely slight, the warmth of the climate 
rendering clothes almost unnecessary. 

The Siamese excel in theatrical amusements. They 
have also races of oxen and those of boats, combats of ele¬ 
phants, cock-fighting, tumbling, wrestling, and rope-danc¬ 
ing, religious processions, and illuminations, and beautiful 
exhibitions of fire-works. 

Language. In the Siamese language there are 
thirty-seven letters, all consonants ; the vowels and diph¬ 
thongs constituting a distinct alphabet. The words seem 
mostly monosyllabic, like the Chinese. 

Literature. In literature the Siamese are far 
from being deficient. At the age of seven or eight years 
the children are often placed in the convents of the Tala- 
poins, where they are instructed in reading, writing, and 
accompts. They are also taught precepts of morality. 
Books of history are not unknown, and there is an excel¬ 
lent code of laws. Poetry, tales, and mythologic fables, 
seem to constitute the other departments of Siamese lite¬ 
rature. 

Cities and Towns. The capital city of the king¬ 
dom has been called Siam. It is situated in an isle formed 
by the river Meinam. The walls, in Loubere’s time, were 
extensive ; but not above a sixth part was inhabited. Its 
condition, since it was delivered from the Birman conquest 
in 1766, has not been described, nor have we any recent 
accounts of their other towns; but in general they were only 


296 


SIAM. 


collections of hovels sometimes surrounded with a wooden- 

stockade, and rarely with a brick wall. 

Edifices. £aempfer, in 16^0, visited Siam ; and 
he minutely describes two remarkable edifices near the 
capital. The first is the famous pyramid called Puka 
Thon, erected in memory of a victory there obtained over 
the king of Pegu. It is a massy but magnificent structure, 
about 120 feet in height, in a square spot enclosed by a wall. 
The first stage is square, each side being about 115 paces 
long. The others vary in form ; and there are often gal¬ 
leries ornamented with columns. At the top it terminates 
in a slender spire. 

The second edifice consists of two squares to the east of 
the city, each surrounded with a fair wall. I hey contain 
many temples, convents, chapels, and columns, particular¬ 
ly the temple of Berklam, with a grand gate ornamented 

with statues and other carvings. 

Manufactures. Though the Siamese are little 
-skilled in the fabrication of iron or steel; they excel in that 
of gold, and in miniature painting. The common people 
are mostly occupied in procuring fish for their daily food, 
while the superior classes are engaged in a trifling traffic. 

Commerce. The commercial relations are chiefly 
with Hindostan, China, Japan, and the Dutch, 

The productions of the country are prodigious quantities 
of grain, cotton, benjamin; sandal, aguallo, and sapan 
woods ; antimony, tin, lead, iron, load-stone, gold, and sil¬ 
ver ; sapphires, emeralds, agates, crystal, marble and 
tombac. 

Climate and Seasons. The two first months 
of the Siamese year, which correspond with our Decem- 
•ber and January, form the whole winter of this country; 
the third, fourth, and fifth belong to what is called their 
little summer, which is their spring ; the seven others to 
their great summer. Autumn is unknown in their calen¬ 
dar. The winter is dry ; the summer moist; the former is 
distinguished by the course of the wind, which blows almost 
constantly from the north, refreshed with cold from the 
snowy mountains of Tibet, and the bleak wastes of Mon¬ 
golia. 

Soil and Productions. This country is a wide 
vale between two high ridges of mountains, thus some* 
what resembling Egypt on a wider scale. 


SIAM. 


237 


The soil towards the mountains is parched and unfertile, 
but on the shore of the river consists, like that of Egypt, of 
an extremely rich and pure mould, in which it is even diffi¬ 
cult to find a pebble, and produces exuberant quantities of 
rice. 

Rivers. The grand river Meinam, a name which 
signifies the mother of waters, reigns supreme among the 
Siamese streams. It is very deep and rapid, always full, 
and, according to Kaempfer, larger than the Elbe. The 
inundations are in September, after the snows have great¬ 
ly melted in the northern'mountains, and the rainy sea¬ 
son has commenced. In December the waters decline, 
and sink by degrees to their former level. The water 
though muddy, is pleasant and salutary. 

Animals. The chief animals of Siam are ele¬ 
phants, buffaloes, and deer. Horses seem little known or 
used, though found wild in Tibet. The elephants of Siam 
are of distinguished sagacity and beauty ; and those of a 
white colour are treated with a kind of adoration, as the 
Siamese believe the souls of such are royal. Wild boars, 
tigers, and monkies, are also numerous. The Meinam 
is, at distant intervals of time, infested with small poison¬ 
ous serpents ; and the trees on its banks are beautifully 
illuminated with swarms of fire-flies. 

Minerals. There are some mines of gold, and 
others of copper ; but the mines chiefly wrought by the 
Siamese are of tin and lead. 

Near Louvo was a mountain of load-stone: fine agates 
abounded in the mountains, nor were sapphires unknown. 


THE OTHER STATES OF EXTERIOR INDIA ARE^ 

1. Laos. Surrounded with forests and deserts, 
and of difficult access by water. The soil is represented 
as fertile in rice; productive of the best benzoin and lacca, 
exquisite musk, with some gold and rubies. 

2. Cambodia. This country, like Siam, is inclosed 
by mountains on the east and west, and fertilized by the ri¬ 
ver Maykaung, which begins to inundate the country 
in June. It is thinly peopled, and the capital called Cam¬ 
bodia, consists only of one street, with a single temple. 


298 


SMALL STATES. 


The most peculiar product is the substance styled gam¬ 
boge, or rather Gamboge gum, yielding a fine yellow tint. 
Ivory also abounds, with several precious woods: and 
some add gold. 

3. Siampa. This small maritime tract is to the S. 
E. of Cambodia. The people are large, muscular, and 
well made, the complexion is reddish, the nose rather fiat, 
the hair is black and long, the dress very slight. 

4. Cochin China. This country, presents an exten¬ 
sive range of coast, and has been visited by many naviga¬ 
tors. As the shores abound with havens, the canoes and 
junks are numerous. 

The superior ranks are clothed in silk, and display the 
politeness of Chinese manners. The dress of both sexes 
is similar, being loose robes with large long sleeves ; and 
cotton tunics and trowsers. A kind of turban covers the 
head of the men : but no shoes nor slippers are used. The 
houses are mostly of bamboo, covered with rushes or the 
straw of rice, and stand in groves of oranges, limes, plan¬ 
tains, and cocoa trees. The rainy season is during Sep¬ 
tember, October, and November; and the three following 
months are also cold and moist, presenting the semblance 
of an European winter. The inundations only last two or 
three days, but happen once a fortnight in the rainy sea¬ 
son. March, April, May, form a delicious spring ; while 
the heat of the three following months is rather exces¬ 
sive. 

The products of agriculture are rice of different quali¬ 
ties, yams, svveet potatoes, green pumpkins, melons. 
Sugar also abounds. Gold dust is found in the rivers ; and 
the mines yield ore of singular purity. Silver mines have 
also been lately discovered. Tigers, elephants, and monkies 
abound in Cochin China; and those edible birds’ nests, es¬ 
teemed a luxury in China, are chiefly found in this country. 

5. Tunquin. This country was only divided from 
the former by a small river, and may at present be consi¬ 
dered as incorporated with it by conquest. The inhabi¬ 
tants resemble their neighbours the Chinese, but their 
manners are not so civilized. The products are numerous, 
and seem to blend those of China with those of Hindostan. 
1 he rivers in the rainy season, from May to September, 
inundate the adjacent country. Kesho the capital city is 


SMALL STATES. 


299 


described by Dampier, as approaching the Chinese form, 
with a considerable population. 

In the gulph of Tunquin and adjacent Chinese sea, the 
tuffoons, or Typhons are tremendous. “ They are preced¬ 
ed by a cloud which appears in the north-east, black near the 
horizon, edged with copper colour on the upper part fading 
into a glaring white. It often exhibits a ghastly appearance 
twelve hours before the typhon bursts, which lasts many 
hours, blowing from the north-east, attended with dreadful 
claps of thunder, large and frequent flashes of lightning, 
and excessive hard rains.” 


HINDOSTAN. 


INTRODUCTION. 

General Observations.—* Arrangement.-—~A r aturaland Political 
Divisions—Plan of this present description. 

General Geography. THE description of this 
interesting portion of Asia is not a little difficult, from its 
vast and irregular extent, from the want of grand subdivi¬ 
sions, from the diversity of nations and powers, large fo¬ 
reign settlements, and other causes, so that the first object 
must be to determine a clear and natural arrangement. 

Mr. Pennant, who often excels in geographical delinea¬ 
tion, has, in his view of Hindostan, been contented with the 
vague divisions of Western, Eastern, and Gangetic, or that 
part which is pervaded by the Ganges, and its tributary 
streams. Major Rennell, to whom we are indebted for an 
excellent map and memoir, which have thrown great light 
on Indian geography, first considers the sea coast and 
islands; as, in the construction of a map, the outline of the 
coast is the earliest object. He then describes Hindostan 
in four other sections: 1. That part occupied by the 
Ganges and its principal branches: 2. That occupied by 

the course of the Sinde, Sindeh, or river Indus: 3. The 
tract situated between the river Kistna, and the two former 
divisions : 4. The countries to the south of the Kistna, or 

what is perhaps improperly called the southern peninsula, 
as no part of Hindostan can be styled a peninsula, in the 
modern acceptation of being nearly surrounded by the sea. 

General Divisions. The general plan adopted 
by Major Rennell seems the best, not only in itself, as was 




HINDOSTAN. 


301 


lo have been expected from his profound acquaintance 
with the subject, but as having the advantage of being fa¬ 
miliar to the public, from the widely diffused reputation of 
his work. Amidst the want of important ranges of moun¬ 
tains, rivers alone can be assigned as natural divisions; 
and as in Hindustan they do not form limits* the countries 
pervaded by their courses and tributary streams may be 
considered as detached by the hand of nature. Hence the 
Gangetic part of Hindostan, to use Mr. Pennant’s term, in¬ 
cludes the space from the confines of Tibet to the sources 
of the Chumbul and Sippra, and from the mountains near 
Agimere and Abugur hills, to the most eastern boundary 
of Hindostan. 

i hat portion watered by the Sinde or Indus, and its sub¬ 
sidiary streams, may in like manner be termed Sindetic 
Hindostan; and as a supplement to this division may be 
considered the country of Sirhind, and other tracts to the 
west of Gangetic Hindostan. 

1 he southern part is encompassed by the sea, except 
on the north, where the river Kistna and its subsidiary 
streams form the boundary. In ancient times this portion 
was styled Deccan, a native term implying the south. But 
the Deccan of the Hindoos extended twice as far in a nor¬ 
therly direction, even to the river Nerbudda; so that it 
would in fact, with the Gangetic and Sindetic divisions, 
nearly complete the whole of Hindostan. The term Dec- 
can is therefore here used for the portion to the south of 
the Kistna. 

That portion on the north of the Kistna, reaching to 
Gangetic Hindostan on the north and east, and the Sindetic 
with its supplementary provinces on the north and west, 
may be styled Interior or Central Hindostan. 

In this arrangement the Gangetic part will include Ben¬ 
gal, Bahar, Allahabad, Gude, Agra, and a part of Delhi and 
Agimere. The Sindetic contains Kuttore, Cashmir, Cabul, 
Candahar, Lahore, Moultan, and Since. 

The central division represents Guzerat, in the west, 
with Candeish, Berar, Orissa, the Sircars, the chief part of 
Golconda, Visiapour, Dowlatabad, and Concan. 

The southern division includes a small portion of Gol¬ 
conda, Mysore, the extensive Region called in modern times 
the Carnatic, with Madura, and other smaller districts; the 
western coast being called that of Malabar, and the eastern 

Cc 


502 


HINDOSTAN. 


that of Coromandel. In this part is naturally included the' 
island of Ceylon. 

Political Divisions. The next topic to be con¬ 
sidered, in a general view of Hindostan, is its political situ¬ 
ation, as divided among various powers. Of these the 
English is at present preponderant, not only from Euro¬ 
pean tactics, but from an actual extent of territory at least 
equal to that of any native power. To their former wide 
possessions in Gangetic Hindostan, with a large portion of 
the eastern coast from below the estuary of the Kistna to 
the lake of Chilka, and the detached government of Madras, 
have been recently added extensive regions in the south 
and west of Mysore, with Seringapatam the capital, not to 
mention Bombay and other detached establishments. And 
the large and important island of Ceylon has been wrested 
from the Dutch. 

Next in consequence are the Maratta states, chiefly con¬ 
tained in the central division of Hindostan. 

The Nizam, or Soubah of the Deccan/their firm ally, has 
considerably enlarged his territory in the south at the ex¬ 
pense of Tippoo ; the central part of whose dominions, ex¬ 
cept Seringapatam, is subject to the raja of Mysore, a 
descendant of the race dethroned by Hyder, an usurper. 

The British, the Marattas, and the Nizam, may be re¬ 
garded as the three leading powers, to which may be added 
on the west, or on the Sindetic division, the Seiks, and Ze- 
maun Shah, or whatever prince holds the eastern division 
of Persia. 

The following table, extracted, with a few alterations, 
from Major Rennell’s memoir, will convey a more com¬ 
plete and satisfactory idea of this important topic. 

I. British Possessions. 

1. Bengal and Bahar, with the Zemindary of Benares. 

2. Northern Sircars, including Guntoor. 

3. Barra-Mahal, and Dindigul. 

4. Jaghire in the Carnatic. 

5. The Calicut, Palicaud, and Coorga countries. 

II. British Allies. 

1. Azliph Dowlah. Oude. 

2. Mahomed Alii. Carnatic. 

3. Travancore, and Cochin. 


HINDOSTAN. 


303 


III. Maratta States. 


Poona Marattas. 

1. Mahva. 

2. Candeish. 

3. Part of Amednagur, or 

Dowlatabad. 

4. Visiapour. 

5. Part of Guzerat* 

6. -Agra. 

7. —— Agimere. 

8. Allahabad. 

9. Shanoor, or Sanore, Ban- 

capour, Damar, &c. si¬ 
tuated in the Dooab, or 
country between the 
Kistna and Tombudra 
rivers. 


Tributaries. 

1. Rajah of Jyenagur. 

2. -Joodpour. 

3. -Oudipour. 

4 . ..-Narwah. 

5. -Gohud. 

6. Part of Bundelcund. 

7. Mahomed Hyat. Bopaltol. 

8. Futty Sing. Amedabad. 

9. Gurry Mundella, &c. 8cc. 


Berar Marattas. 


Tributary. 


1. Berar. 

2. Orissa. 


Bembajee. 


IV. Nizam Ali, Soubah of the Deccan. 

1. Golconda. Combam) and Gandicotta 

2. Aurungabad. (or Ganjecotta.) 

3. Beder. 7. PartofGooty, Adoni, and 

4. Part of Berar. Canoul. 

5. — ■ Adoni, Rachore, and 8. Part of the Dooab. 

Canoul. [9. Other districts acquired 

6. Cuddapali. Cummum (or 1799.] 


V. Seiks. 


Lahore, Moultan, and the western parts of Delhi. 

As the other great power chiefly extends over Persia, 
and may be regarded as foreign, it only remains to mention 
the small states. 







304 


HINDOSTAN. 


1. Successors of Zabeda Cawn. Sehaurunpour. 

2. Jats. 

3. Pattan Rohillas. Furruckabad. 

4. Ad jig Sing*. Rewah, Sec. 

5. Bundelcund, or Bundela. 

6. Little Ballogistan. 

To which may now be added the Raja of Mysore. 

The British possessions prior to the fall of Tippoo, 1799, 
were supposed to contain 197,496 square British miles, 
being about 60,000 more than are comprised in the united 
kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland: the number of 
inhabitants was computed at ten millions. The acquisition 
in 1799 probably adds 15,000 square miles, and the popu¬ 
lation subject to Great Britain is supposed to be 12 or 
14,000,000. The net revenue exceeded three millions be¬ 
fore the cessions by Tippoo, in 1792, computed at 400,000/. 
while those in 1799 do not appear much to exceed half that 
sum. This great power and revenue of so distant a coun¬ 
try, maintained in the midst of a highly civilized foreign 
nation, is perhaps unexampled in ancient or modern times. 

The Marattas are divided into two states or empires, 
that of Poona, or the western, and Berar, or the eastern ; 
each ruled by a number of chiefs or princes, who pay a no¬ 
minal obedience to the paishwa, or sovereign. An account 
of the Marattas belongs to the central division of Hindos- 
tan. The Seiks, a new religious sect, first appeared in the 
middle of the seventeenth century, and have gradually be¬ 
come formidable to the neighbouring states. The Jats, or 
Jets, were a tribe of Hindoos, who about a century ago 
erected a state around the capital Agra. The Afghans, 
another peculiar people, originated from the mountains 
between Persia and India. 

Before closing these general considerations with regard 
to this extensive country, it may be proper to observe that 
the name of Hindostan has been considered as synony¬ 
mous with the empire of the great Mongul. But the 
power of the Monguls, which commenced under Baber, 
1518, was most eminent in the northern parts, the Deccan, 
or south, remaining unsubdued till the time of Aurunzeb, 
1678, when that region, with what is called the peninsula, 
a few mountains and inaccessible tracts only excepted, were 
either vanquished or rendered tributary to the throne of 


HINDOSTAN. 


305 


Delhi. When Aurunzeb died in 1707, in his 90th year, 
the Mongul empire had obtained its utmost extent from 
the 10th to the 35th degree of latitude, (about 1750 British 
miles,) and about as much in length: the revenue exceed¬ 
ing thirty-two millions sterling, in a country where pro¬ 
visions are about four times as cheap as in England. The 
number of its subjects may be computed at about sixty mil¬ 
lions. But this great power declined so rapidly, that within 
fifty years after his death, it may be said to have been an¬ 
nihilated, and the empire of the great Mongul has vanished 
from modern geography. 

The plan to be pursued, in the subsequent brief account 
of Hindostan, has been above indicated as divided into 
four parts; the region on the Ganges, those on the Indus, 
the central, and the southern. In three of these divisions 
the British possessions are powerful, if not predominant; 
and it is difficult to connect the political with the natural 
geography. Doubts may justly arise whether the British 
territories ought not to form a separate and distinct portion 
in a perspicuous arrangement, this being another of the 
peculiar difficulties which attend the geography of Hindos¬ 
tan. But the grand mass of the population in these settle¬ 
ments consists of native Hindoos, and the natural geogra¬ 
phy of the country must not be sacrificed to any extraneous 
consideration, it still seems preferable to abide by the di¬ 
vision already laid down. Hence that form of description 
must be chosen, which, resting on the perpetual founda¬ 
tions of nature, cannot be injured or obliterated by the de¬ 
stinies of man. 

I hese considerations being premised, a similar arrange¬ 
ment shall here be followed in describing Hindostan, a 
labyrinth of eastern geography, with that used in delineat¬ 
ing Germany, that labyrinth of European geography. A 
general view of the whole region shall be followed by a 
short sketch of each of the above divisions ; in which the 
several states, chief cities, and other geographical topics, 
shall be briefly illustrated. 

Name. The name of this celebrated country in the 
ancient Sanscrit language is Bharata. That of Hindostan 
seems to have been imposed by the Persians. It was long 
known by the name of the empire of the Great Mogul, 
because it was then subject to Mongul emperors, succes¬ 
sors of Timur. 


C c 2 


S06 


HINDOSTAN. 


Boundaries. This portion of Asia extends from 
cape Comari, called by navigators Comorin, in the south, 
to the mountains which form the northern boundary of 
Cashmir; that is according to the most recent maps, from 
about the eighth to about the 35th degree of northern la¬ 
titude, being twenty-seven degrees, or 1620 g. miles. 1 he 
northern boundary may be yet farther extended to the 
Hindoo Koh, and mountains running E. and W. on the 
north of the province of Kuttore. 

From the river Araba, on the west of the province of 
Sinde, to the mountains which divide Bengal from Cassay 
and the Birman dominions, that is from about the sixty- 
sixth to the ninety-second degree of east longitude from 
Greenwich, there are 26° which in the latitude of 25° con¬ 
stitute a breadth of more than 1400 g. miles. 

The boundaries are marked on the north by the moun¬ 
tains above mentioned. On the west towards Persia, 
other ranges and deserts constitute the frontier till the 
southern separation ends in the river Araba. The other 
boundaries are supplied by the Indian ocean, and Bay oi 
Bengal, the little river Naaf, and those mountains which 
divide the British possessions from Aracan, Cassay, and 
Cashur. 

Original Population. The original population may 
be generally considered as indigenous ; yet amidst the great 
diversity of climate and situation, the native race presents 
considerable varieties, as being fairer in the northern parts, 
and in the southern almost or wholly black, but without 
the negro wool or features. Still the tinge of the women 
and superior classes is deep olive; and the Hindoo form 
and features may be said to approach the Persian or Euro¬ 
pean standard. The Mongols with the Arabs and Persians, 
who are settled here, are generally called Moors. 

Historical Epochs. The Hindoos never seem 
to have boasted of one native historian, and the best mate¬ 
rials are derived from the Persian memoirs ; from which 
Ferishta himself, a Persian, compiled his histories of Hin- 
dostan towards the beginning of the seventeenth century. 
In this defect of native records we must be contented with 
the epochs derived from foreign sources. 

1. The invasion by Alexander the Great, who found, 
western India divided among numerous potentates, though 
he advanced little farther than Lahore. 


HINDOSTAN. 


307 


2. At a long interval appears the conquest of the north¬ 
western part by Mahmoud of Ghizni, A. D. 1000. The 
founder of the Mahometan empire in Hindostan. 

3. The dynasty of the Patan, or Affghan emperors be¬ 
gins with Cuttub, A. D. 1205, and ends with Mahmoud 
III. 1393. 

4. The great Moguls or Mongul emperors begin with 
Babar, 1525 ; and continued with a short interruption, by 
the Patans to Shah Aulum, to 1760. 

The invasion by Timur, and, at a distant interval, that 
by Nadir, also form remarkable epochs in the history of 
this passive country.—The latter may be said to have vir¬ 
tually dissolved the Mogul empire.—-The Portuguese set¬ 
tlements were followed by those of the Butch.—The French 
power began to predominate in 1749, but speedily closed 
in 1761, with the loss of their principal settlement Pondi¬ 
cherry.—As merchants the English had long held small 
settlements in Hindostan ; but the expedition into Tanjore, 
1749, was the first enterprise against a native prince. Other 
contests followed concerning Arcot in the kingdom of Car- 
nada, or what we call the Carnatic.—In 175 6 the fort of 
Calcutta, the chief settlement in Bengal, was taken by the 
nabob, and many of the inhabitants perished in a shocking 
manner, from being confined in a small chamber.—The 
battle of Plassey, fought in June, 1757, laid the foundation 
of the subsequent power of Britain. Lord Clive, governor 
of Bengal, 1765, obtained a grant from the nominal Mo¬ 
gul, of Bengal, Bahar, and part of Orissa, on condition of 
an annual tribute. Soon after the English w r ere engaged 
in a contest with Hyder Alii, a soldier of fortune, who had 
dethroned the lineal sovereign of Mysore, and extended his 
conquests to the adjacent territories. Some conflicts fol¬ 
lowed on the confines of Carnada and Mysore ; but the 
event w r as little advantageous to either party.—Hyder, dy¬ 
ing in 1783, was succeeded by his son Tippoo, who seems 
to have been a prince of inferior abilities, and expiated his 
ill arranged plans by his death, and the partition of his 
territories, in 1799. 

The Bengal provinces have been in possession of the 
English since 1765 ; and Benares was added in 1775. This 
portion might constitute a considerable kingdom, and is 
sufficiently compact and secure by natural advantages, in¬ 
dependently of a formidable force. The Sircars, or de« 


SOS 


HINDOSTAN. 


tached provinces, partly belong to Golconda, and partly to 
Orissa, forming a long narrow slip of country from twenty 
to seventy-five miles wide, but about three hundred and 
fifty in length. These detached Sircars or countries, being 
to the north of Madras, on which they are dependent, are 
commonly styled the northern Sircars. In 1754 they were 
acquired by the French ; and conquered by the English 
under Colonel Clive in 1759. 

The English settled at Madras about the year 1640; 
and their territory here extends about a hundred and eight 
British miles along the shore, and forty-seven in breadth, 
in the centre of the ancient kingdom of Carnada. 

The celebrated battle of Panniput was fought in 1-761, 
between the Mahometans under Abdalha king of Candahar, 
and the Marattas, in which the latter were defeated : the 
Mahometans were computed at 150,000, and the Marattas 
at 200,000. 

Ancient Monuments. Some of the most re¬ 
markable monuments are excavated temples, statues, re¬ 
lievos, See. in an island near Bombay. The idols repre¬ 
sented seem clearly to belong to the present mythology of 
Hindostan ; but at what period these edifices were model¬ 
led, whether three hundred, or three thousand years ago, 
must be left in the darkness of Hindoo chronology. 

Mythology. Though the mythology of the Hin¬ 
doos may pretend to great antiquity, yet their present form 
of religion is supposed to vary considerably from the an¬ 
cient. The artful Bramins have introduced many innova¬ 
tions in order to increase their own power and influence ; 
but it appears that the fabric rests on that almost universal 
system of the east, the belief in a supreme Creator too in¬ 
effable and sublime for human adoration, which is therefore 
addressed to inferior, but great and powerful divinities. 

Keligion. The religion of the Hindoos is artfully 
interwoven with the common offices of life ; and the dif¬ 
ferent casts are supposed to originate from Brahma, the 
immediate agent of creation under the supreme power in 
the following manner : 

The Brahmin from the mouth (wisdom) : To pray, to 
read, to instruct; which sect has had art enough to raise 
themselves above all the rest. 

The Chehteree , from the arms (strength) : To draw the 
bow, to fight, to govern. 


HINDOSTAN. 


309 


The Brice , from the belly or thighs (nourishment): To 
provide the necessaries of life by agriculture and traffic. 

The Sooclet'y from the feet (subjection); To labour, to 
serve. 

Government. Hindostan is now divided into 
many governments, the form of which must be considered 
in describing the several states. Suffice it here to observe, 
that though the Bramins be the most dignified cast, yet 
there do not seem to have been one or more high priests, 
as in the surrounding countries. The sovereignty was 
abandoned to the military cast, and the monarch was pre¬ 
sumed to be the proprietor of all the lands, except those 
belonging to the church. 

Laws. The laws of the Hindoos are intimately 
blended with their religion, and the curious reader may 
consult the code, translated and published by the direction 
of Mr. Hastings. 

Population. The population of this extensive 
part of Asia is supposed to amount to sixty millions, of 
which the British possessions may now perhaps contain a 
quarter. 

General Revenues. The general revenues of 
Hindostan were computed in the time of Aurunzeb, by a 
precise calculation of those of the several provinces, at 
thirty-two millions sterling ; equal perhaps, considering 
the comparative price of products, to one hundred and sixty 
millions sterling in modern England. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the Hindoos are intimately blended with their re¬ 
ligion, and are universally similar, with a few exceptions 
in mountainous and other peculiar districts. One of the 
most singular begins to expire, that of giving the living 
widow to the same flames with her husband’s corpse. 

As soon as a child is born it is carefully registered in its 
proper cast, and astrologers are consulted concerning its 
destiny. A Bramin imposes the name. The infant thrives 
by what we would call neglect; and no where are seen 
more vigour and elegance ol form. The boys are gene¬ 
rally taught reading and writing by Bramins, but the 
girls are confined at home till their twelfth year. Polygamy 
is practised, but one wife is acknowledged as supreme. 
The Hindoos are extremely abstemious, and wholly ab¬ 
stain from animal food and intoxicating liquors. The 


HINDOSTAN. 


<S10 

chouses are built of earth or bricks, covered with mort^F, 
and sometimes with excellent cement, with no windows, 
or only small apertures. There is generally only a ground 
floor, inclosing a court, with a small gallery supported by 
slight wooden pillars. 

Languages. The general ancient language of 
Hindostan is believed to have been the Sanscrit, an origi¬ 
nal and refined speech, compared by Sir William Jones 
with the Greek and Latin. The more common dialects 
used in these extensive regions are very various ; not fewer 
than nine or ten. 

Literature. The literature of Hindostan doubt¬ 
less contains several valuable and curious monuments; but 
their epochs are extremely uncertain. Hence little else 
than confusion and contradiction are to be found in the nu¬ 
merous accounts published of Hindoo literature. 

The most important books are the Vedas; there are also 
some epic poems which pretend to contain fragments of 
genuine history. It is probable the oldest was not written 
above seven hundred years ago.—It is a great singularity 
that the old Hindoo grants of land, many of which have 
been translated and published, are extremely long, and in a 
strange poetical or inflated style, some of the compound 
words consisting of not less than one hundred and fifty 
syllables 1 When we compare these singularities with the 
brevity and clearness of the Greek and Roman inscrip¬ 
tions, we are led to conclude that the Hindoos are the 
puerile slaves of a capricious imagination. 

The Hindoos are ignorant of the Chinese art of printing; 
they are nevertheless in general highly civilized, and of the 
most gentle and amiable manners. But perhaps in no art 
nor science are they equal to the Chinese or Japanese ; 
and in most are confessedly greatly inferior. 

The chief university in the north is that of Benares, a 
most celebrated and ancient school, now included in the 
English possessions. In the Deccan the academy of Tri- 
ciur, on the Malabar coast, is also in great repute. “ At 
Cangiburam , in Carnate, there is still a celebrated Brahman 
school, which, according to the testimony of Ptolemy, ex¬ 
isted in the first century of the Christian era; and its mem¬ 
bers are certainly equal in celebrity to the Brahmans of 
Benares” 


HINDOSTAN. 


311 


Manufactures. The manufactures of Hindos- 
tan have been celebrated from early antiquity, particularly 
the muslins and other fabrics from cotton. Nor is Hindos- 
tan famous at this day for any manufacture, except those 
of muslins and calicoes, the other exports consisting- of 
diamonds, 1 aw silks, with a few wrought silks, spices, drugs, 
&c. The shawls of Cashmir are also deservedly esteemed ; 
being there woven from a material chiefly supplied by Ti¬ 
bet. Painting and sculpture are in their infancy ; yet the 
temples are sometimes majestic and solemn. In most 
trades very few tools are employed. The simple loom is 
reared in the morning under a tree, and carried home in 
the evening. 

Native Products. But it is the abundance of 
native products, which has in all ages rendered Hindostan 
the centre of great trade. Diamonds, and some other pre¬ 
cious stones, are products almost peculiar; as well as 
many spices, aromatics, drugs, rice, and sugar. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate and seasons 
are considerably diversified by difference of latitude, and 
local situation. In Bengal the hot, or dry season begins 
with March, and continues to the end of May, the thermo¬ 
meter sometimes rising to 110°: this intense heat is some¬ 
times interrupted by violent thunder storms from the north¬ 
west—^'he rainy season continues from June to September; 
the three last months of the year are generally pleasant; 
but excessive fogs often prevail in January and February. 
The periodical rains are felt in Sindetic Hindostan, and 
in the rest of the country they almost deluge it, descend¬ 
ing like cataracts from the clouds, and the Ganges and 
other rivers spread to a wide extent, the inundation 
ceasing in September. “ By the latter end of July all the 
lower parts of Bengal, contiguous to the Ganges and Bur- 
rampooter, are overflowed, and form an inundation of more 
than a hundred miles in width ; nothing appearing but 
villages and trees, excepting very rarely the top of an ele¬ 
vated spot (the artificial mound of some deserted village) 
appearing like an island.” 

In the southern division the chains of the Gauts, or 
mountains of Malabar and Coromandel, supporting the 
high table land in the centre, intercept the great mass of 
clouds; and the alternate S. W. and N. E. winds, called 
the Monsoons, occasion a rainy season on one side of the 






312 


HINDOSTAN. 


mountains only, that is, on the windward side. The mon¬ 
soon is from the N. E from October to April; and from 
May to September in the opposite direction. In general 
March, April, May, and June are the dry months. 

Excessive rains, or excessive heats, form the chief va¬ 
rieties of the year, and produce luxuriance of vegetation, 
almost unknown to any other country on the globe. 

Soil. The soil in some places is so excellent as 
to consist of black vegetable mould to the depth of six feet. 
Rice is the chief grain ; and on the dry sandy lands of the 
coast of Coromandel great industry is displayed in water¬ 
ing it. ' 

Maize and the sugar-cane are also favourite products. 
The cultivation of cotton is also widely diffused ; and this 
plant particularly thrives on the dry ooast of Coromandel. 

Rivers. The rivers of Hindostan are large and 
numerous, but our limits will not permit us to describe 
many of them. 

The Ganges must still be considered as the sacred so¬ 
vereign of the Hindoo rivers. It receives such a number 
of important tributary streams, that its magnitude exceeds 
what might have been expected from the comparative 
length of its course ; which may however be estimated at 
about fourteen hundred British miles. Tieffenthaler has laid 
down the latitude of the noted Gangoutra, or Cow’s mouth 
in lat. 33°, being a celebrated cataract where the Ganges is 
said to pass through a vast cavern in a mountain, falling 
into a large bason which it has worn in the rock. At about 
two hundred and eighty miles to the south of this place 
the Ganges enters the wide plains of Hindostan ; and pur¬ 
sues a south-east direction by the cities of Canoge, Alla¬ 
habad, Benares, Patna, &c. till dividing into many grand 
and capacious mouths, it forms an extensive delta at its 
egress into the gulph of Bengal. The extreme mouths of 
the Ganges are intersected with isles, called the Sunder- 
bunds, overgrown with tall bamboos and other luxuriant 
vegetation, the impenetrable haunts of the royal tiger and 
other beasts of prey. Gn the westernmost outlet of the 
Ganges, called the Hoogley, or Ugli, stands Calcutta, the 
capital of British Hindostan. This, and the most eastern 
which receives the Burrampooter, are the widest and most 
important branches. 


HINDOSTAN. 



The noblest tributary stream of the Ganges is the Bur- 
rampooter. This river runs for four hundred miles through 
the British territory; and for the last 60 miles before its 
junction with the Ganges is from four to five miles wide. 
On their union below Luckipour, they form a body of run¬ 
ning fresh water, resembling a gulph of the sea, inter¬ 
spersed with islands, some of which rival in size and ferti¬ 
lity the Isle of Wight. In the mouths of the Ganges and 
the Megna, the sudden influx of the tide will rise instanta¬ 
neously to-the height of from five to twelve feet. 

I he course of the Burrampooter is supposed to be nearly 
equal in length to that of the Ganges. The sources of 
these great rivers are stated to be very near, yet they se¬ 
parate to the distance of more than a thousand miles, and 
afterwards join in their termination. 

The Indus is by the natives called Sinde, or Sindeh, and 
is supposed to have its source in the Belur Tag, or cloudy 
mountains. Its comparative course may be about a thou¬ 
sand British miles, when it forms a delta in the province 
of Sinde, entering by many mouths into the Indian sea. 

There are several tributary rivers which join the Sinde 
chiefly in tiie northern half of its course, where they form 
the Panjab, or country of Five Rivers ; but the whole of this 
part oi Hindostan is little known to the moderns; and it is 
uncertain whether the Caggar, a considerable and distant 
river to the east, join the Sinde, or fall into the gulph of 
Gutch. 

The Deccan, or most southern part of Hindostan, is 
considered as bounded and enriched by the Kistna, and its 
tributary streams. The Kistna, a sacred river, rises at 
Balisur in the chain of Sukhien, not far to the south of 
Poona, and forms a delta near Masulipatam, after a compa¬ 
rative course of about five hundred British miles. This 
river rivals any Indian stream in the fertility diffused by its 
inundations; and the richest diamond mines in the world 
are in the neighbouring hills to the north. The chief tri¬ 
butary streams in that quarter are the Beema, passing 
near the diamond mines of Visiapour ; and the Muzi, or 
Moussi, by those of Golconda. But the most considerable 
river joins the Kistna from the south, called the Toombud- 
dra on the banks of which have been recently disclosed 
many populous provinces, and flourishing towns. 

Dd 


314 


HINDOSTAN. 


Lakes. In this extensive portion of Asia the lakes 
seem to be few, and of small account. The country of Cash- 
mir is supposed to have been originally a large lake, as le- 
ported in the native traditions ; and a considerable expanse 
of water still remains in the northern part of this delightful 
country, called the lake of Ouller or 1 al, being about lift) - 

three British miles in circuit. 

Mountains. The mountains chiefly celebrated 
by the Hindoos may be said to be only visible from their 
country, being the northern chain of the 1 ibetan Alps, 

covered with perpetual snow. 

The rest are mostly delineated in Major Rennell’s ex¬ 
cellent map of Hindostan. 1 he following list contains most 
of the names there to be found. 

The Chaliscuteli hills, between the western desert and 

the Setlege. 

The Alideck mountains, above Gujurat. 

The mountains of Gomaun, or Kemaoon, called also those 
of Sewalic. 

The mountains of Himmaleh, N. of Tassiudon. 

In Bengal are several ridges of hills without names, 
which is the case even with the chain on the N. W. ol the 
Sircars. 

The Lucknow hills, at the source of the Mahanada. 

Those of Gondwanah, running parallel with the Ner- 
budda for a space, and then turning south to N arnalla. 

The ridges near the Chumbul are also without names. 

The Grenier mountains in Guzerat. 

The Shatpoorta hills, between the Nerbudda and the 
Taptee. 

On the other side of the Nerbudda there are also re¬ 
markable parallel ridges, giving source to many rivers, but 
nameless. 

The important diamond mountains of Golconda and 
Visiapour. 

A ridge called the Bundeh mountains runs parallel to 
the Godaveri on the south, but at a considerable distance 
from that river. 

The Gauts, peculiarly so called, are ranges which run 
along the western and eastern coasts of the Deccan. The 
former is by the natives called the mountains of Sukhien. 

These chains rise abruptly on each side, but particularly 
the west, forming as it were enormous walls, supporting a 


HINDOSTAN. 


315 


high terrace or table land in the middle. Exclusive of a 
gap, the mountains of Sukhein extend from Cape Comorin 
to Surat, at the distance of from forty to seventy miles from 
the shore. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. A 
more fertile soil, and climate better adapted to the most 
profuse luxuriance of vegetation than the well watered 
tracts in this vast peninsula, cannot possibly be found in any 
part of the known world. Double harvests, two crops of 
fruit from many of the trees, and from most of the rest a 
copious and regular supply during the greater part of the 
year, are the basis that support its swarming population, 
while its timber of every quality, its plants of medicinal vir¬ 
tue, its numerous and exquisite dying drugs, and its cot¬ 
tons and other vegetable articles of clothing, offer to its in¬ 
habitants the materials of enjoyment and civilization. 

The most distinguishing feature in tropical landscapes is 
the multitude of lofty trees of the palm kind. The cocoa 
nut tree, perhaps the most widely diffused of any, is found 
in abundance on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel. 
The areca palm, the smaller fan-palm is distinguished for 
its broad fan-shaped leaves, which are used for writing on, 
and for thatching. This although a large tree is far infe¬ 
rior to the greater fan-palm which abounds on the lower 
mountains of the Carnatic ; each leaf of this vast tree is 
capable of covering ten or a dozen men, and two or three 
of them are sufficient to roof a cottage. 

Of the other fruit bearing trees there are, the papaw 
fig, remarkable for the sweetness and rose flavour of their 
fruit; the pillaw is a tree of equal singularity and use; 
from its trunk and larger branches are produced fibrous 
bags, sometimes of the weight of twenty-five pounds, which 
are filled with nuts like the chesnut, and resembling the 
almond in flavour. The mango however is reckoned the 
most exquisite of the Indian fruits, and is found in conside¬ 
rable abundance, both wild and cultivated through the 
whole Peninsula. 

Of the trees whose produce is used in medicine or the 
arts, the most worthy of notice are the cassia fistula ; the 
tamarind; the gambogia; the laurus cassia, whose bark 
is a common substitute for cinnamon ; caesalpina sappan, a 
red wood used in dying ; sandal wood, &c. The chief tim¬ 
ber trees are the teak, used specially for ship building ; 


316 HINDOSTAN. 

the ebony ; and the ferreola, the hardest of all the Indian 
woods. 

A few other trees require notice from the size or beauty, 
such as the banyan tree and-Indian fig ; the hibiscus ficui- 
neus is remarkable by its magnitude, and the prolusion of 
its elegant blossoms, and is of peculiar value in the tropical 
climate, as hardly any insects are found under its shade. 
The cotton tree rises with a thorny trunk eighteen feet in 
circumference to the height of fifty feet without a branch 5 
it then throws out numerous boughs, which are adorned in 
the rainy season with purple blossoms as iawge as the open 
hand, and these are succeeded by capsules filled with a fine 
kind of cotton. 

The numerous cavalry which form the armies of the 
Hindoo princes imply great numbers of horses ; and the 
breeds most celebrated are those of Lahore and Turkistan, 
but the grandees are supplied from Persia and Arabia. 

The cattle of Hindostan are numerous, and often of a 
large size, with a hunch on the shoulders. The sheep are 
covered with hair instead of wool, except in the most nor¬ 
thern parts. 

Antelopes abound, of various beautiful kinds, particular¬ 
ly that called the Nilgau, which is of a considerable size. 

The Arabian camel, or that with a single hunch, is not 
unfrequent about Patna. The elephant has been frequently 
described; the usual height of this intelligent animal is 
about ten feet. Apes and monkies abound in various re¬ 
gions of Hindostan ; and the orang outang is said to be 
found in the vast forests on the W. of the Sircars. The 
dogs are generally of the cur kind, with sharp erect ears, 
and pointed noses. The other animals are wild boars, 
bears, wolves, foxes, jackalls, hyenas, leopards, panthers, 
lynxes: in the north, musk weasels, and many other qua¬ 
drupeds of inferior size. 

The lion seems to have been always unknown in Hindos¬ 
tan. The royal Tiger of Bengal is however a far more ter¬ 
rible animal than the stoutest lion. Such is their size and 
strength that they are said to carry off bullocks, the height 
of some being said to be five feet, and the length in propor¬ 
tion. Parties of pleasure on the isles at the mouth of the 
Ganges have often been shockingly interrupted by the sud¬ 
den appearance of the tiger, prepared for his fatal spring, 
which is said to extend a hundred feet, not improbable vvfien 


HINDOSTAN. 


317 


compared with that of the cat. W ild peacocks abound in 
Tibet and Ceylon ; our common fowl are also found wild 
in the jungles, whence they are called jungle fowl. 

Minerals. T. he mineralogy of Hindostan may 
be opened by its most distinguished and peculiar product, 
celebrated in all ages of the world, that of diamonds, which 
are indeed also found in Brazil, but of far inferior quality. 

The chief and most celebrated diamond mines are those 
near Visiapour and Golconda, both near streams that flow 
into the Kistna in the southern division of Hindostan, Gol¬ 
conda being in the territory of the Nizam, while Visiapour 
belongs to the Marattas. 

Next in value to the diamond are the sapphire and the 
ruby, which are chiefly found in the Birman territories ; 
but the ruby also occurs in Ceylon, which likewise pro¬ 
duces an inferior kind of sapphire, the topaz, and other pre¬ 
cious stones. 

Among the metals gold is found in the rivers which flow 
from Tibet into the Ganges and Indus; but no gold mines 
seem ever to have been known in Hindostan, which has 
rather been celebrated for attracting this metal in com¬ 
merce from other countries. Silver seems rare in general 
throughout the oriental regions, and there is no indication 
of this mineral through all India. 

Natural Curiosities. Among the singular 
features of nature may be mentioned the appearance of the 
provinces on the rivers, during the season of inunda¬ 
tion, when access is opened by numerous channels to 
places before inland. The grand aspect of the northern 
mountains covered with snow, and the wide desert on the 
east of the Indus, between 4 and 500 miles in length and 
from 60 to 150 in breadth, are also grand features ; as is 
the high table land of Mysore, supported by natura} 
buttresses of mountains. 


GANGETIC HINDOSTAN, 

OR, THE COUNTRIES ON THE GANGES. 

British Possessions. Bengal, Bahar, with Be¬ 
nares, and some other districts to the west, forming the 
chief basis and centre of English power in this country, k 

I) d 2 


318 


HINDOSTAN* 


is proper first to consider them apart, and then proceed to 
some account of the other provinces. The British settle¬ 
ments here extend about 550 miles in length by 300 in 
breadth, in themselves a powerful kingdom. i he native 
population is computed at ten or eleven millions of black 
subjects, exclusive of the English, whose number seems 
not authenticated. 

Revenue. The revenue of these British provinces is 
computed at 4,210,000/. sterling; the expense of collection, 
military and civil charges, See. 2,540,000/. sOthat the clear 
revenue is 1,670,000/. They are well situated in respect 
to security from foreign invasion; and since they were in 
possession of the British have enjoyed more tranquillity than 
any part of Hindostan has known since the reign of Au- 
rungzeb. 

Government. The government of Bengal and its 
wide dependencies was first vested in a governor-general 
and a supreme council, consisting of a president and eleven 
counsellors ; but in 1773 these were restricted to four, with 
Warren Hastings the governor-general, who were to di¬ 
rect all affairs, civil and military, in the kingdoms of Ben¬ 
gal, Tahar, and Orissa; and to control the inferior go¬ 
vernments of Madras on the E. and Bombay on the W. 
with Bencoolen in the island of Sumatra. The -court of 
judicature consists of a chief justice and three other judges, 
with civil, criminal, naval, and ecclesiastical jurisdiction. 
The Hindoos are governed by their own laws. 

Army. The military establishment in Bengal is 
always respectable, but varies according to the situation of 
affairs. The British troops are supported by the Sepoys, 
a well trained native militia. 

Cities and Towns. The chief city of Bengal, 
and of all the British possessions in Hindostan, is Calcutta, 
The latitude is 22° 33' north, and the longitude 88° 28' 
east from Greenwich. 

“ Generally speaking, the description of one Indian city 
is a description of all; they being all built on one plan, with 
exceedingly narrow, confined, and crooked streets ; w ith 
an incredible number of reservoirs and ponds, and a great 
many gardens interspersed. A few of the streets are pav¬ 
ed with brick. The houses are variously built, some of 
brick, others with mud, and a still greater proportion with 
bamboos and mats ; those of the latter kind are invariably 


HINDOSTAN. 


319 


of one story, and covered with thatch. Those of brick 
seldom exceed two floors, and have flat terraced roofs and 
are few in number. 

“ Calcutta, is, in part, an exception to this rule of 
building : for there the quarter inhabited by the English is 
composed entirely of brick buildings, many of which have 
more the appearance of palaces than of private houses ; but 
the remainder of the city, and by much the greatest part, 
is built as above described. Calcutta is the emporium of 
Bengal, and the seat of the Governor General of India. It 
is a very extensive and populous city, being supposed at 
present to contain at least 500,000 inhabitants. Calcutta is 
situated on the western arm of the Ganges, at about one 
hundred miles from the sea ; and the river is navigable up 
to the town for the largest ships that visit India. It is a 
modern city, having risen on the site of the village of Go- 
vindpour, about nine years ago. The citadel is superior 
in every point, as to strength and correctness of design, to 
any fortress in India: but on too extensive a scale to an¬ 
swer the useful purpose intended, that of holding a post 
in case of extremity.” 

In this grand capital of British Asia the mixture of 
people and manners presents a picturesque and interesting 
scene. The black Hindoo, the olive-coloured Moor or 
Mahometan, contrast with the fair and florid counte¬ 
nances of the English ; and the charms of the European 
damsel receive a foil from the dark Hindoo beauties. To 
the luxuries of the Asiatic are added the elegance and 
science of the English life. Evqn the newspapers are drawn 
up with care, and printed with elegance ; and the Asiatic 
society, instituted by the late admirable Sir William 
Jones, forms a noble monument of science in a distant 
country. 

The commerce of Calcutta is very great in salt, sugar, 
opium, silks, and muslins, &c. The line muslins are 
chiefly fabricated in the rainy season from May to Septem¬ 
ber, and, with calicoes, form a great part of the exports 
to Europe. 

In the eastern part of the British possessions the most 
considerable town is Dacca, beyond the principal stream of 
the Ganges. Dacca is celebrated for manufactures of the 
most delicate muslins, so much in request in the European 
market. Hoogley, or Ugli, is a small but ancient city, 


320 


HIND G STAN* 


about 26 miles above Calcutta, on the grand western branch 
of the Ganges, which thence receives its name. 

Patna is the capital of the province of Bahar, situated 
about 400 miles N. W. from Calcutta, being tolerably for¬ 
tified, and a place of considerable trade ; most of the salt¬ 
petre, in particular, exported to England is made in the 
province of Bahar. 

Benares approaches to the western frontier of the British 
possessions, the district having been ceded to the East In¬ 
dia Company in the year 1775. It is a rich, populous, and 
compact city, on the northern bank of the Ganges, about 
460 miles from Calcutta. 

On leaving the British possessions, towards the west, 
first occurs Allahabad, a city belonging to the nabob of 
Oude, but of little consequence. 

Lucknow is the present capital of Oude, having super¬ 
seded Fyzabad. 

The great and good emperor Acbar constituted Agra 
the capital of the Mogul empire about A. D. 1566. It has 
rapidly declined. 

To the N. W. of Agra, near the confines of Sindetic 
Hindostan, stands the celebrated city of Delhi, the Ma¬ 
hometan capital of India. This metropolis may be said 
to be now in ruins. 

Oujein which may be considered as the farthest city in 
the south of that portion now under view. It is about six 
miles in circumference, surrounded by a strong wali, with 
round towers. The houses partly brick, partly wood, co¬ 
vered with lime, tarass, or tiles ; the bazar or market, is 
spacious, and paved with stone : there are four mosques, 
and several Hindoo temples, with a new palace built by 
Sindia. 

About 80 miles south of Agra is the noted fort of Gwa¬ 
lior : it stands on an insulated rock about four miles in 
length, but narrow : the sides are almost perpendicular, 
from two to three hundred feet above the surrounding plain. 
On the top there is a town with wells and reservoirs, and 
some cultivated land. This celebrated fortress, which is 
about 80 miles to the south of Agra, was taken by surprise 
by a few English under Major Fopham, in 1779. 

Adjoining to the British settlements in this part of India 
are the people of Aracan, Mickley, and Sirinagur, rude 
mountaineers, too unimportant to deserve a place in this 
epitome. 


HINDOSTAN. 


321 


SINDETIC HINDOSTAN; 

OR, 

THE COUNTRIES ON THE RIVER SINDEH OR INDUS. 

Extent. THIS part extends from the northern 
mountains of Cashmir, and the Hindoo Eoh, in the north 
of Cabul, to the mouth of the Indus, a length of about 900 
British miles, and about 350 in medial breadth. 

We shall begin with the N. E. and end with the S. W. 
after mentioning that Agimer, which may be regarded as 
the most eastern city of this division, is little remarkable, 
except for a strong fortress on a hill. 

Chief Cities and Towns. The town of Sirhind 
is placed by modern maps on the river Caggar, which 
Major Rennell supposes to follow a detached course into 
the gulph of Cutch: perhaps it may be lost in the great 
sandy desert. 

Lahore, now the capital of the Seiks, was the residence 
of the first Mahometan conquerors before they advanced 
to the more central parts ; and, including the suburbs, was 
supposed to be three leagues in length. From Lahore to 
Agra, near 500 English miles, there was an avenue of 
shady trees. The river Rauvee passes by Lahore, being 
the Reva of the Hindoos. 

Almost due north from Lahore, at the supposed distance 
of about 200 British miles, stands Cashmir, the capital of 
the delightful province so called. “ The city extends about 
three miles on each side of the river Jalum, over which 
are four or five wooden bridges, and occupies in some part 
of its breadth, which is irregular, about two miles. The 
houses, many of them two and three stories high,' are 
slightly built of brick and mortar, with a large intermixture 
of timber. On a standing roof of wood is laid a covering 
of fine earth, which shelters the building from the great 
quantity of snow that falls in the winter season. In the 
summer season, the tops of the houses, which are planted 
with a variety of flowers, exhibit at a distance the spacious 
view of a beautifully chequered parterre. The streets are 
narrow, and choaked with the filth of the inhabitants, who 
are proverbially unclean.” The country of Cashmir is a 
delicious vale, extending in an oval form, about 90 miles 


322 


HINDOSTAN. 


from S. E. to N. W. It was subject to the Zagathai princes 
tiil A. D, 1586, when it became subject to the Monguls, 
and afterwards to the Afgans. JRice is the common pro¬ 
duct of the plains : while the surrounding hills yield wheat, 
barley, and other crops. The celebrated shawls are only 
manufactured here. The price at the loom is from 26s. 
to 5\. and the revenue is transmitted to the Afgan capital 
in this fabric. The Cashmirians are stout and well formed, 
but their features often coarse and broad, even those of the 
women, who in this northern part of India are of a deeper 
brown complexion than those of southern France or Spain. 
The dress is inelegant, but the people gay and lively, and 
fond of parties of pleasure on their delicious lake. 

The wide space from Cashmir to Cabul is more re¬ 
markable for numerous streams and mountains than any 
other circumstance ; but the country is diversified with 
gentle hills, fertile vales, and stately forests, and besides 
delicate fruits and flowers is abundant in other productions. 
Ghizni was the seat of the first Mahometan conquerors, 
and the ancient capital of the country. The city of Cabul 
is the capital of the dominions of the Persian Shah, usually 
styled king of Candahar, whose dominions extend west¬ 
ward beyond the sea of Durrah, including a great part of 
Corasan, with the large Persian province of Segistan, being 
about 800 British miles in length by about half that breadth. 
Cabul is esteemed a considerable citv, in a romantic and 
healthy situation. 

Pursuing the course of the Indus towards the south, 
the small citv and fortress of Attock which were only built 
by Acbar, 1581, present themselves : but the vicinity was 
memorable in ancient times as the general passage from 
India to the west. 

Moultan, the capital of the province so called, is about 
170 British miles to the south of Attock, on the river Chu- 
nab. It is a small city, and of little consequence, except 
for its antiquity and cotton manufacture. 

The last remarkable city on the Indus is Tatta, the capi¬ 
tal of the province of Sindi, and situated within the Delta, 
the upper part of which is well cultivated, while the lower 
presents only low brushwood, swamps and lakes. At Tatta 
the heats are so violent, and the winds from the sandy de¬ 
serts on the E. and N. W. so pernicious, that many pre» 


HINDOSTAN. 


323 


cautions are used. The manufactures of this city in silk, 
wool from Kerman, and cotton, have greatly declined. 

CENTRAL HINDOSTAN; 

OR, 

THE MIDDLE PROVINCES. 

Boundaries. THIS division is chiefly bounded 
by Gangetic Hindostan on the north, and on the west by 
the sandy desert and the ocean. The southern limit is the 
river Kistna, with its tributary stream the Beema; while 
the east is washed by the bay of Bengal. The length E. 
to W. is little less than 1200 British miles; while the me¬ 
dial breadth is about 400. In it are comprehended the 
province of Orissa, with part of Golconda, Berar, Dowlata- 
bad, Candeish, and Guzerat, and other districts of inferior 
name ; and on the eastern shore are the British provinces 
of the Sircars. 

Chief Cities. In a natural transition from the 
division of India last described, the province of Guzerat 
first presents itself, like a large promontory, but the shores 
seem little adapted to commercial purposes. The chief 
city of Guzerat, Amedabad, is considerable, and well forti¬ 
fied, taken by the English under general Goddard in ] 780, 
restored to the Marattas in 1783. Cambay, at the distance 
of more than 50 miles, is a handsome city, and formerly of 
great trade in spice, ivory, silk, and cotton cloths ; but is 
now little frequented. 

Surat was formerly more celebrated as the port whence 
the Mahometans of India embarked on their pilgrimage 
to Mecca, than for any other circumstance. The Portu- 
gueze seized Surat soon after their arrival in Hindostan ; 
and it was among the first places in this country frequented 
by the English. It is said to contain 500,000 inhabitants. 

Bombay at a considerable distance to the south is a well 
known English settlement, on a small island about seven 
miles in length, containing a very strong capacious for¬ 
tress, a large city, a dock yard, and a marine arsenal. It 
was ceded to the English in 1662, by the Portuguese, as 
part of the dower of the queen of Charles II. 


324 


hindostan: 


On leaving the shore and proceeding towards the east of 
central Hindostan, first occurs the city of Bur ham pour, of 
small note. Ellichpour is of considerable importance, be¬ 
ing the chief city of Berar. Nagpour is the capital of the 
eastern division of the Maratta empire, as Poona .is of the 
western, being a modern city of small size. 

Not far to the east of this city begins that extensive 
and unexplored wilderness, which is pervaded by the great 
river Bain or Baun Conga, and terminates in the moun¬ 
tains bounding the English Sircars. 

On turning towards the west, few places of note arise, 
except Aurungabad, a modern city, deriving its name from 
Aurungzeb, in whose time it was the capital of the Dec- 
can. Near this city is Dowiatabad, which gives name to 
the province, with a singular fortress on a peaked rock. 

This central part of Hindostan was formerly the seat of 
great power, and the western coasts greatly frequented by 
foreign merchants of all nations, but its commerce has 
been transferred to the Ganges. 

In later times the southern part of this coast was re¬ 
markable upon another account, being the chosen residence 
of daring pirates. They resembled on a small scale the 
piratical states of Barbary, and a succession of Jlngvicin was 
continued till 1756, when the British seized Gheriah, the 
principal fortress. 

THE SOUTHERN DIVISION OF HINDOSTAN. 

Boundaries. THIS part, which may also be call¬ 
ed the Deccan 01 south, is bounded by the river Ivistna, 
and extends from the latitude of Bombay to the southern 
point of Cape Comorin, about 830 British miles in length* 
and about 350 of medial breadth. It contains nearly the 
whole of the province of Visiapour, and the most import¬ 
ant part of that of Golconda, with the central kingdom of 
Mysore, the long eastern province of the Carnatic, the 
pi incip&lities of 1 anjore, i ravancore, and the Samorms 
of Calicut, the pepper coast of Canara, and other districts. 

British Possessions. In addition to the district 
around Madras, the British power was, in 1792 and 1799 , 
extended over wide provinces in the south and w^est of 

Mysore, and Seringapatam the capital is also in their 
possession. 


HINDOSTAN. 


325 


Chief Cities. In recent times Seringapatam may 
be regarded as the most important city in this portion of 
Hindostan. It is situated in an isle, surrounded by the 
river Caveri, which is even here about five feet deep, and 
runs over a rocky channel. The length of this isle is about 
four miles, and the breadth about a mile and a half; the 
western side being allotted to the fortress, distinguished 
by regular out-works, magnificent palaces, and lofty 
mosques. The environs are decorated with noble gar¬ 
dens ; and among the means of defence was what is called 
the bound hedge , consisting of every thorny tree or caustic 
plant of the climate, planted to the breadth of from thirty 
to fifty feet. 

In this central territory the British also possess several 
considerable towns, Salem and Attore in the east; Dindi- 
gul, Coimbetore, Palieaud, on the south ; and on the west¬ 
ern coast, Paniany, Ferokabad, Calicut, now nearly deserted, 
Tellicherri, Mangalore, and Carwar within forty miles of 
the Portuguese settlement of Goa ; while on the south they 
approach within a like distance of Cochin. In the Carnatic 
they have long held Madrass, where they settled so early as 
1640 ; but the fortress, which is strong, and includes a re¬ 
gular well built city, is of modern date. Unhappily there 
is no port, nor is there indeed one haven for large vessels, 
from the mouth of the Ganges to Trincomali on the east¬ 
ern side of Ceylon, which renders this last of singular be¬ 
nefit to their commerce. 

Not far from the western frontier of the settlement at 


Madrass stands Arcot, esteemed the capital of the Carnatic. 
The Navab often resides at Madrass. In his dominions 
there are several celebrated temples, visited by numerous 
pilgrims; in general the southern parts of Hindostan dis¬ 
play more numerous edifices, and other marks of civiliza¬ 
tion, than the northern. 

Tranquebar is a noted Danish settlement in the kingdom 
of Tanjore, which embraces the wide Delta of the Caveri. 
This settlement was formed about 16 ‘ 7, and has been 
chiefly remarkable on account of the Lutheran missionaries, 
who resorted hither to convert the Hindoos. Pondicherri 
was the principal settlement of the French, founded in 


1674, and before the war of 1756, was a lar^e and beauti¬ 
ful city. 


326 


HINDOSTAN. 


On the western coast, or that of Malabar, stands Cochin 
This city remained subject to the Portuguese till 1660 , 
when it was taken by the Dutch. The surrounding creeks 
and marshes of this low and unhealthy shore abound with 
fish and game. 

To the north of the British territories first occurs Goa, 
formerly a capital settlement of the Portuguese, and a 
noted seat of their Inquisition. This city, once magnifi¬ 
cent, stands on a small isle in the midst of a beautiful bay. 
The- harbour is ranked among the first in India, and if in 
the hands of the English, would probably resume its form¬ 
er consequence. 

Porna is the capital of the western empire of the Ma- 
rattas, but a mean defenceless city; the archives of the 
government, and in all appearance the chief seat of power, 
being at Poorunder, a fortress about eighteen miles to the 
south-east. 

Visiapour in the Maratta territory is a considerable city. 
In the vicinity are celebrated diamond mines. 

Hydrabad is the metropolis of the Nizam’s territory, 
and particularly of the celebrated kingdom or province of 
Golconda, but seems otherwise little remarkable. Betwixt 
these two last named cities stands Calberga, formerly the 
capital of a powerful kingdom, that of the Deccan, under 
the Bamineah dynasty. 


ISLAND OF CEYLON. 


Extent and Namr, THIS island approaches to 
the size of Ireland, being generally supposed to be about 
260 British miles in length, by about 150 in breadth. It 
is the Trapobana of the ancients ; and the people are doubt¬ 
less of Hindoo origin. When the Portuguese seized this 
island, 1506, the chief monarch was the king of Cotta; 
but the central province of Candea, or Candi, afterwards 
appears as the leading principality. The Portuguese re¬ 
tained possession of the shores till about 1660, when they 
were expelled by the Dutch, between whom and the king 
of Candi a war arose, 1759, which terminated, 1766, by the 
submission of the latter, who surrendered all the coasts, 
and agreed to deliver yearly a quantity of cinnamon at a 
low rate. From the sordid domination of the Dutch it has 
recently passed under the more liberal banner of British 
power. 

Religion. The religion of Ceylon is the ancient 
worship of Boodh, whose images appear with short and 
crisped hair, because it is fabled that he cut it with a gold¬ 
en sword, w T hich produced that effect. The worship of 
Boodh is supposed to have originated in Ceylon ; and thence 
to have spread to ancient Hindostan, to exterior India, 
Tibet, and even to China and Japan. 

Population. There does not yet appear to be 
any authentic intelligence concerning the population cf 
Ceylon. This island is only important in a commercial 
view, from its celebrated products of cinnamon and gems. 
The harbour of Trincomali on the east is to the British of 
great consequence, because there is none on the eastern 
coast of Hindostan. 




528 


CEYLON. 


Manners and Customs. The natives of Ceylon, 
called Sinhalese, are not so black as those of Malabar, 
and have a few manners and customs distinct from other 
Hindoos. It is said that several brothers may have one 
wife in common, as in Tibet, but the polygamy of males is 
also allowed. 

Towns. The native town Kandi, in the centre of 
the isle, seems to be of small size and consequence, and 
probably only distinguished by a palisade and a few temples. 

The chief town of the Portuguese, Dutch and English 
possessions, is Colombo, a handsome place, and well forti¬ 
fied ; the residence of the governor is elegant, but only 
consists of one floor, with a balcony to receive the cool air. 
At Colombo there is a printing press, where the Dutch 
published religious books. 

The grand pearl fishery is conducted in the gulf of Ma- 
nar, near Condatchey, which supplies inexhaustible stores of 
this valued production. 

The harbour of Trincomali opens at the mouth of the 
Mowil Ganga, and was defended by a strong fortress. 

But the southern side of Ceylon has been chiefly visited, 
abounding with gems and other rich productions. Matura 
was a Dutch factory where excellent kinds of cinnamon 
Were collected, and varieties of precious stones abound in 
the vicinity. Galle is a handsome town strongly fortified, 
on the projecting angle of a rock. 

Manufactures, &c. There is little mention of 
any manufactures conducted in this island. The Dutch 
ships used to sail from Galle, laden with cinnamon, pepper, 
and other spices; with pearls and precious stones. The 
Colombo wood, a bitter in recent use, found here, receives 
its name from the capital. 

Climate. The climate and seasons correspond 
in some degree with the adjacent continent; yet the expo¬ 
sure on all sides to the sea renders the air more cool and 
salubrious. High mountains, prodigious forests, full of 
aromatic trees and plants, and many pleasant rivers and 
streams diversify this country, which by the Hindoos is 
esteemed a second paradise. The vales are of a rich fat 
soil; and when cleared, amazingly fertile in rice, and other 
useful vegetables. 

The mountain termed Adam's Peak is esteemed the 
highest in the island ; and is in Sanscret called Salmala, 
Boodh being fabled to have ascended from it to heaven, 


CEYLON. 


329 


Animals. The elephants of Ceylon are supposed 
only to yield in beauty to those of Siam, and chiefly fre¬ 
quent the southern part of the island. Buffaloes are also 
found in a wild state, while the tame are used in rural eco¬ 
nomy. The wild boars are numerous and extremely fierce; 
nor is the tyger unknown. Bears, Chakals, and many tribes 
of deer and monkeys, are also natives of Ceylon. The 
alligator, frequent in the Hindoo rivers, here sometimes 
reaches the length of eighteen feet. Among a vast variety 
of elegant birds, the peacock, that rich ornament of the 
Hindoo forests, swarms in this beautiful island. 

The pearl fishery begins on the N. W. shore about the 
middle of February, and continues till about the middle of 
April. The village of Condatchey is then crowded with a 
mixture of thousands of people of different colours, coun¬ 
tries, casts, and occupations ; with numerous tents and 
huts, and bazars, or shops ; while the sea presents many 
boats hastening to the banks, or returning with the expected 
riches. The divers are chiefly Christians or Moslems, 
who descend from five to ten fathoms, and remain under 
water about two minutes, each bringing up about a hun¬ 
dred oysters in his net. 

Other Isles. There are no other isles of any 
consequence near the coasts of Hindostan. Those called 
Lacadives and Maldives scarcely merit a particular de¬ 
scription in a work of this general nature, and the Anda¬ 
man and Nicobar isles properly belong to exterior India. 


PERSIA. 


Divisions. THE ancient and powerful monarchy 
of Persia has, during the greater part of last century, been 
in a most distracted and divided condition, and the inhabit¬ 
ants, formerly renowned for wisdom and benignity, have 
been degraded by civil discord. This empire seems at 
length, in some degree, to have settled into two divisions, 
the eastern and the western ; while the provinces near the 
Caspian, secured by mountains and fastnesses, have assert¬ 
ed a kind of independence. 

Name. The name of Persia spread from the pro¬ 
vince of Pars or Pars throughout this mighty empire : but 
it has been little known to the natives, who in ancient and 
modern times, have termed their country Iran. 

Extent. From the mountains and deserts which, 
with the river Araba, constitute the eastern frontier towards 
Hindostan, Persia extends more fchan 1200 miles in length, 
to the western mountains of Elevend, and other limits of 
Asiatic Turkey. From south to north, from the deserts on 
the Indian sea, in all ages left to the Ichthyophagi, or wild 
tribes of Arabs who live on fish, to the other deserts near 
the sea of Aral are about 1000 British miles. 

Population. The original population of the 
mountainous country of Persia appears to have been indi¬ 
genous, and in the opinion of all the most learned and 
skilful enquirers, this nation is Scythic or Gothic, and the 
very source and fountain of all the celebrated Scythian 
nations. While the southern Scythians of Iran gradually 
became a settled civilized people, the barbarous northern 
tribes spread around the Caspian and Euxine seas; and 
besides intermediate settlements detached victorious colo- 




PERSIA. 


331 


rues into the greater part of Europe many centuries be¬ 
fore the Christian era. The ancient Medes and Parthians 
in the north of Persia appear however to have been of 
Sarmatic, or Slavonic origin, and to have spread from their 
native regions on the Volga, towards the Circassian moun¬ 
tains, along which ridge they passed to the south of the 
Caspian, the ancient scite of Media and Parthiene. The 
late very learned and excellent Sir William Jones, who 
did honour to his country and century, has repeatedly ex¬ 
pressed his opinion that while the Parsi and Zend, or pro¬ 
per and peculiar Persian language, is of the same origin 
with the Gothic, Greek, and Latin ; the Pehlavi is Assyrian 
or Chaldaic. 

This ancient and extensive empire is divided into thirteen 
provinces, but our limits will not permit us to describe 
them particularly. 

Besides these, and exclusive of Asiatic Turkey on the 
W. the ancient Persian empire comprised Bactriana or 
Balk, a kingdom of between 3G0 and 400 British miles 
square ; Sogdiana, or the country on the river Sogod, which 
passes by modern Samarcand ; the Sac® and Caspii, proba¬ 
bly the country of Shash; and Corasmia, now the desert 
space of Kharism, with the small territory of Khiva. 
These now form a part of independent Tartary. 

Historical Epochs. The chief historical epochs 
of the Persian empire may be arranged in the following 
order : 

1. The Sythians or barbarous inhabitants of Persia, ac¬ 
cording to the account of Justin, conquered a great part 
of Asia, and attacked Egypt about 1500 years before the 
reign of Ninus the founder of the Assyrian monarchy ; 
that is, about 3660 years before the Christian era. The 
Egyptians, a people of Assyrian extract, as the Coptic 
language seems to evince, were from superior local advan¬ 
tages civilized at a more early period. The historical re¬ 
cords contained in the scriptures attest the early civilization 
and ancient polity of the Egyptians. The first seat of the 
Persian monarchy was probably in the N. E. on the river 
Oxus ; while the Assyrians possessed the Euphrates and 
the Tigris, and the S. W. of Persia. 

The'history of the Assyrian empire begins with Ninus, 
about 2160 years before Christ. 


332 


PERSIA. 


2. Zoroaster king of Bactriana is said to have been con¬ 
temporary with Ninus, and to have invented magic ; that 
is, he was a wise man, who could produce uncommon ef¬ 
fects by common causes. 

3. Cyrus bounds what is called the Persian empire, 557 
years before the Christian era, and soon after takes Baby¬ 
lon. This great event may be said only to have disclosed 
the Persians to the civilized nations of the west, for the 
native Persian histories ascend to Kayumarras, great 
grandson of Noah. 

4 . The overthrow of the first Persian empire by Alex¬ 
ander, B. C. 328, followed by the Greek monarchs of Syria, 
and the Grecian kingdom of Bactriana. It commenced 
about 248 years before Christ, and contained several satra¬ 
pies, among which was Sogdiana. 

5. The Parthian empire, which likewise began about 
248 years B. C. This was a mere revival of the Persian 
empire under a new name. 

6. Ardshur, or Artaxerxes, about the year 220 of the 
Christian era, restores the Persian line of kings ; this dy¬ 
nasty being called Sassanides. 

7. The conquest of Persia by the Mahometans, A. D. 
636. The native kingdom was revived in Corasan, A. D. 
820; and after several revolutions resumed its former 
situation. 

8. The accession of the house of Boni&h, A. D. 934. 

9. That of the house of Sefi or Sofi, A. D. 1501, whence 
the title of Sofis of Persia. 

10. The reign of Shah Abas, surnamed the Great, A. D. 
1586. 

11. The brief conquest by the Afgans, 1722 : and con¬ 
sequent extinction of the house of Sefi, and elevation of 
Nadir, surnamed Thamas Kouli Khan, A.D. 1736. I'his 
ferocious chief was born in Corasan ; and after a reign of 
eleven years was slain, 20th June, 1747, near the city of 
Meshid, in the same country. 

Ancient Monuments. Of these the ruins of Per- 
sepolis are the most celebrated and remarkable. They are 
situated at the bottom of a mountain, fronting S. W. about 
forty miles to the north of Shiraz. The ruins exhibit in¬ 
scriptions in a character not yet explained, the letters of 
which somewhat resemble nails, disposed in various direc¬ 
tions. 


PERSIA. 


333 

Modern History. Nadir Shah was succeeded 
by his nephew Adil; who, after a transitory reign, was fol¬ 
lowed by his brother Ibrahim. Meanwhile Timur Shah 
reigned in Cabul, Candahar, and the Persian provinces 
adjacent to Hindostan ; and availing himself of the confu¬ 
sion in Persia, he besieged Meschid, which he took after 
a blockade of eight months. 

This event was followed by extreme anarchy and con¬ 
fusion. 

At length the government of western Persia was happi¬ 
ly settled for a considerable space of time in the person of 
Kerim Khan. This great and mild prince at the time of 
Nadir’s death was in the southern provinces, where he as¬ 
sumed the power at Shiraz, and was warmly supported by 
the inhabitants of that city. In reward he embellished this 
city and its environs with noble palaces, gardens and 
mosques, improved the highways, and rebuilt the cara- 
vanseras. His reign was established by the sword, but was 
afterwards unsullied by blood; and its chief peril arose 
from extreme mercy. 

Another unhappy period of confusion followed the death 
©f Kerim ; his relation Zikea or Saki seized the govern¬ 
ment, which was contested, and he was massacred by his 
own troops at Yezdekast. 

Abul Futtah was then proclaimed king by the soldiers, 
but Sadick, brother of Kerim, opposed his nephew’s ele¬ 
vation, and marched from Bussora at the head of an army, 
dethroned the young monarch, and after depriving him of 
his sight, ordered him into strict confinement. 

Ali Murad, then at Ispahan, rebelled against this usur¬ 
per, and with an army of twelve thousand men besieged 
and took Shiraz, and put Sadick to death with three of his 
children. 

Ali Murad was now regarded as peaceable possessor of 
the Persian throne ; but an eunuch called Akau, assumed 
an independent sway in the Caspian province of Mazendran. 
When advancing against him, Ali Murad fell from his 
horse and instantly expired. 

In 1791 , Akau conquered the citie sof Kasbin and Tek- 
heran or Tahiran. 

After the death of Jaafar, a son of Ali Murad, Akau 
had no rival except Hidaet, khan of Ghilan, who was forced 
to fly from Rasht his place of residence, but was killed 


334 


PERSIA. 


near the port of Sinfili. In consequence of these events 
Akau became monarch of all vv; tern Persia; and being 
an eunuch, had nominated for his successor his nephew 
Baba Serdar. 

Eastern Persia. Having thus as briefly as pos¬ 
sible discussed the recent history of western Persia, the 
eastern half yet remains ; but the materials concerning the 
kingdom of Candaliar, or the eastern half, are if possible, 
yet more scanty than those concerning the western half. 
Ahmed Abdalla, first king of Candaliar, was originally the 
chief of an Afgan tribe, conquered by Nadir Shah, on whose 
death he erected a considerable kingdom in the eastern 
part of Persia, including most of the Indian provinces ced¬ 
ed by the Mogul to Nadir. He established the capital at 
Cabul, at a secure distance behind the mountains of Hin¬ 
doo Koh. 

Ahmed died about the year 1773, and was succeeded by 
Timur, who continued to reside at Cabul. The successor 
of Timur, was Zemaun, who probably still rules this exten¬ 
sive country, which has happily been free from the intes¬ 
tine commotions which have desolated western Persia. 
Since the great battle of Panniput, fought by Ahmed Ab¬ 
dalla against the Marattas 1761, the kingdom of Candahar 
seems to have remained in a pacific state, and the govern¬ 
ment is of applauded lenity. 

The chief subjects of Zemaun are the Afgans, or people 
of the mountains between Persia and Hindostan, who may 
be considered as the founders of the empire; the others 
are Hindoos, Persians, and a few Tatars. 

Religion. The religion of Persia is well known 
to be the Mahometan, which was introduced by the sword, 
and has been followed by its usual effects, the destruction 
and depopulation of the country. Yet the Persians adopt 
a milder system of this creed than is followed by the Turks 
and Arabs, whence they are regarded by the other Maho¬ 
metans as hereticks. 

Of the Parsees, or ancient worshippers of fire, there 
seem to be no remains in Persia, except perhaps a lew visi¬ 
tors of the fiery eruptions of Naphtha near Baku, on the 
western shores of the Caspian. These innocent idolaters 
have been almost extirpated by Mahometan fanaticism. 
I hey worship the everlasting fire near Baku, as an emblem 
of Ormuzd, or the supreme ineffable Creator ; while the 


PERSIA. 


335 


evil principle believed to have sprung from matter was styl¬ 
ed Ahriman. They still abound near Bombay, where 
their singular mode of sepulture excites attention, as they 
expose their dead in inclosed areas to be devoured by birds 
of prey, a custom which has been propagated to some other 
oriental nations. 

The Fakirs and Calenders of the Mahometan sect are 
wandering monks, or rather sturdy beggars; who, under 
the pretext of religion, compel the people to maintain 
them in idleness. 

Government. The government of Persia, like 
that of all other oriental states, appears to have been al¬ 
ways despotic ; but its administration in eastern Persia, or 
the kingdom of Candahar, is represented as mild. The 
Khans are sometimes governors of provinces, sometimes 
only possessors of small districts, and pretend to heredita¬ 
ry succession, though liable to be forfeited or put to death 
by the arbitrary mandate of the sovereign. The great 
Khans are sometimes styled Beglerbegs ; and in time of 
war Serdars, or generals. Those who command cities are 
commonly styled Darogas or governors. 

Population. The present state of the population 
of both the Persias cannot be justly estimated, but it per¬ 
haps little exceeds that of Asiatic Turkey, which has been 
computed at ten millions. The army of each about 100,000 
men. 

Navy. The Persians were never a maritime people. 
The commerce on the Indian ocean, as well as on the 
Caspian sea, has been always chiefly conducted by the Ar¬ 
menians, a most industrious and respectable people : while 
the natives, with feudal pride, attend to their horses and 
the chace, and lead what is called the life of a gentleman, 
neither improving their own property nor the country in 
general. 

Revenues. The actual revenues of Persia it is 
impossible to estimate ; but the ruinous state of the country 
must render it unproductive. The monarch of Candahar 
may perhaps draw from his various and extensive provinces 
about three millions sterling; while western Persia 
scarcely supplies two millions. Chardin says that the an¬ 
cient revenue consisted partly in contributions in kind; 
Kurdistan, for instance, furnishing butter, while Georgia 
supplied female slaves ; and partly arose fe»n the royal do- 


336 


PERSIA. 


mains, with a third of metals, precious stones, and pearls ; 
and a few duties and taxes 

Political Importance and Relations. The 
political importance and relations of Persia, which once 
were so highly valued, are now greatly restricted. The 
western part is very little formidable even to the declining 
power of Turkey ; and the Russians seem to entertain no 
desire of extending their conquests that way ; this unhappy 
security being in fact one grand cause of the civil anarchy. 

Manners and Customs. The Persians still pride 
themselves in universal politeness, and are hospitable, not 
however without the expectation of presents in return. 
They seem to consider themselves as more wise and saga¬ 
cious than other nations, yet are passionate. Of a sanguine 
temperament, both rich and poor are generally gay : and 
immoderate mirth will succeed the most violent quarrels. 
They are extremely attached to the fair sex, and not averse 
to wine. The general complexion is fair, somewhat tinged 
with olive : but those in the south about Shiraz, of Canda- 
har, and the provinces towards India are of a dark brown. 
They are commonly fat, with black hair, high forehead, 
aquiline nose, full cheeks, and a large chin, the form of the 
countenance being frequently oval. The men are gener¬ 
ally strong and robust, and inclined to martial exercises, 
but they are particularly subject to disorders of the eyes. 
They generally shave the head, and wear high crimson 
bonnets ; but the beard is sacred, and tended with great 
care. They often wear three or four light dresses, one 
above the other, fastened with a belt and sash ; and they 
are fond of large cloaks of thick cloth. The women wrap 
around their heads pieces of silk of different colours ; and 
their robes are rather shorter than those of the men. The 
Persians eat twice or thrice a day, dining about noon, but 
the chief repast is the supper, as with the anci; nt Greeks 
and Romans. The most usual dish is boiled rit e variously 
prepared. The meat is boiled to excess, and the meal is 
enlarged with pot-herbs, roots, and fruits, cakes, bard 
eggs, and above all sweetmeats,'of which they are ext rme- 
ly fond. They are remarkable for cltmliness, both in 
theiv persons and habitations. 

Marriages are conducted by female mediation ; and the 
pomp and ceremonies somewhat rest* T .e the Russian. 
Polygamy is allowed ; but the first married is the chief 


PERSIA. 


r* r> w 
OOl 

wife. The tombs of the rich are often grand, as are the 
cenotaphs of the twelve Imams, or vicars of the prophet. 

Language. The language of Persia is perhaps 
the most celebrated of all the Oriental tongues, for strength, 
beauty, and melody. The excellent work of Sir William 
Jones on oriental poetry, discloses part of the treasures to 
be found in this language. In general the Persian litera¬ 
ture approaches nearer to the European, in solid good sense, 
and clearness of thought and expression, than that of any 
other Asiatic nation. 

Hafiz is the Anacreon of the east, and his tomb is vene¬ 
rated in the vicinity of Shiraz, being itself the chosen 
shrine of parties of pleasure, who proceed thither to enjoy 
the delicious situation, and offer libations of the rich Shir¬ 
azian wine to the memory of their favourite bard, a splendid 
copy of whose works is chained to his monument. But 
the sciences in general are little cultivated by the Persians, 
who are lost in abject superstition, and fond believers in 
astrology. Their education is chiefly military. 

Cities. The capital city of Modern Persia is Ispahan. 
Including the suburbs its circuit is computed by Chardin 
at about twenty-four miles, and the inhabitants at 600 , 000 , 
It stands on the small river Zenderud. The walls are of 
earth and ill repaired, with eight gates, and the streets 
narrow, devious, and badly paved. But the royal square 
and its grand market, the palace of the Sefi, and those of 
the Grandees, the mosques, the public baths, and other 
edifices, are for the most part splendid. The suburb of 
lulfa, or Yulfa, is very large, and possessed by the Arme¬ 
nians. This capital was so much reduced when Mr. Han- 
way visited it, that not above five thousand houses were 
inhabited. 

The second city, at least in fame, is Shiraz, which has 
been recently visited and described. This capital of Far- 
sistan, or Persia, is situated in a fertile valley? about twenty- 
six miles in length, and twelve in breadth bounded on all 
sides by lofty mountains : the circuit of the city is about 
four miles, surrounded with a wall twenty five f et high, 
and ten thick, with round lowers at the distance of eighty 
paces. The citadel is built of brick ; and before it is a great 
square, with a park of miserable artillery. The mosk of 
the late Kerim is splendid but unfinished. Many summer 
houses, with gardens, in the vicinity of Shir az, were built 

F f 


338 


PERSIA. 


by the late regent Kerim, the plantations being avenues of 
cypress and sycamore, leading to parterres of flowers, and 
refreshed with fountains. The neighbouring fields are fer¬ 
tile in rice, wheat and barley, the harvest beginning in May, 
and ending in the middle of July. Provisions are cheap, 
and the mutton excellent. The famous horses of Fars now 
yield greatly to those of Dush Tistan, a province to the 
S. W. At Shiraz there is a glass manufa&ory, but wool¬ 
len goods and silks are brought from Yezd and Kerman, 
copper from Tauriz, sword-blades from Kom. Abu She- 
har, or Busheer, supplies Indian articles. The climate of 
this celebrated city is delicious, particularly in the spring, 
when numerous flowers perfume the air; and the Boolbul, 
or oriental nightingale, the goldfinch, linnet, and other 
warblers, delight the ear. 

Having thus briefly described the two most celebrated 
cities, we can give very little more than the names and po¬ 
pulation of the others. Teffliz, the capital of Georgia, is 
a large and populous town, but meanly built. The chief 
trade is in furs, sent to Turkey and the south of Persia, 
the present circuit is about two English miles, and it is 
supposed to contain 20,000 inhabitants, more than half be¬ 
ing Armenians. 

Derbent was formerly a place of strength on the Caspian 
sea, but was taken by Peter the Great of Russia, and after¬ 
wards by Catharine II. in 1780. It has little commerce, 
except inland with Ghilan, principally in saffron. 

Westward on the Turkish frontier, stands the city of 
Ertvan. of considerable extent, but the houses are meanly 
built, like most of those in Persia. Provisions are plentiful, 
and good wine is produced in the neighbourhood. 

The province of Aclerbijan contains few places of note 
except Tebriz, or Tauriz, a considerable city, whose bazars 
or marketplaces, and other public edifices, are grand and 
spacious ; and it is said that the great square has held thirty 
thousand men drawn up in order of battle. 

The Caspian provinces of Ghilan and Mazendran present 
their capitals, Rasht and Sari. The former is the seat of 
considerable commerce, and the number of houses may 
amount to two thousand. The palace of the Khan was 
composed of several large pavillions, arranged in the form 
of a square, and communicating with each other by hand¬ 
some galleries. In the midst was a garden with fountains, 


PERSIA. 


539 


and behind was the haram with another garden, the apart¬ 
ments being richly furnished with tapestry, mirrors, and 
other elegant articles. 

Kom, or Khums, was visited by Chardin in the seven¬ 
teenth century : he represents it as a considerable city ; 
the houses were computed at fi steen thousand ; and the 
chief manufactures were white earthen ware, soap, and 
sword-blades. Here are the superb tombs of Seh I. and 
Abas II. 

Towards the Turkish frontier, one of the largest rivers 
of Persia, the Ahwaz, or ancient Choaspes, Hows into the 
Tigris ; but though the ancient Susa decorated its banks, 
the modern towns of Kiab and Awaz are ot small account. 

The celebrated Persian gulph has been always more re¬ 
markable for the factories of foreigners, than for native 
establishments. Bander Abassi, now Gombroom, was a 
port opposite to the isle of Ormus. 1 he trade, once con¬ 
siderable, is now greatly declined. The English staple is 
Bussora. 

In the isle of Ormus was formerly a celebrated mart ot 
Portuguese trade ; but they were expelled by Abas the 
Great, with the assistance of the English, A. D. 1622. 

In passing to the eastern division, or kingdom of Kan¬ 
dahar, it may be proper to observe that Cabul, the metro¬ 
polis, is situated within the limits of Hindostan, and has 
been mentioned. 

The dominion of Zemaun Shah comprises a consider¬ 
able portion of Corasan. Herat, once the chief city, stands 
on a spacious plain intersected with many rivulets, which, 
with the bridges, villages, and plantations, delight the 
traveller, fatigued in passing the eastern desert of Afganis- 
tan, or the country of the Afgans. This city was the capital 
of Corasan, till the first Sefi of Persia transferred this rank 
to the northern city of IMeshid, w r hich contained the tomb 
of Muza, his supposed ancestor, and one of the twelve 
great Imams of Persia. 

Edifices. In the recent desolation of the country 
many of the most splendid edifices are become ruinous; 
the late Kerim however decorated Shiraz with many beau¬ 
tiful buildings. He also improved the roads in the vicinity ; 
but in Persia, which may be called a country of mountains, 
the roads are not only difficult, but kept in bad repair. 


340 


PERSIA. 


Manufactures and Commerce. The manu¬ 
factures and commerce of this great country may be said 
to be annihilated, though a few carpets still reach Europe 
at extravagant prices. Even the trade with the Russians 
on the Caspian is of small account. 

That intelligent but prolific traveller, Chardin, has given 
an ample view of the Persian manufactures and commerce 
in the seventeenth century. Embroidery was carried to 
the greatest perfection, in cloth, silk, and leather. Earthen¬ 
ware was made throughout Persia ; the best of which equal¬ 
led the Chinese porcelain in fineness and transparency : 
and the fabric was so hard as to produce lasting mortars 
for grinding various substances. The bows of Persia were 
the most esteemed of all in the east, and the sabres finely 
damasked, in a manner which Chardin thinks inimitable 
in Europe. Their razors, and other works in steel, were 
also laudable ; and they excelled in cutting precious stones, 
and dyeing bright and lasting colours. Their carpets, their 
cotton and woollen cloths, and those made of goats* and 
camels’ hair, with their silks, brocades, and velvets, were 
superior manufactures. Such were formerly the manufac¬ 
tures and commerce of this extensive country, which are 
now almost annihilated. 

Climate. Persia which lies between the latitudes 
of 25° and 44° N. has been said to be a country of three 
climates; but even in the south the high mountains con¬ 
tribute to allay the extreme heat. The northern provinces 
on the Caspian are comparatively cold and moist. In the 
centre of the kingdom the winter begins in November, and 
continues till March, commonly severe, with ice and snow. 
From March to May high winds are frequent; but thence 
to September the air is serene, refreshed by breezes in the 
night. From September to November the winds again 
prevail. In the centre and south the air is generally dry, 
thunder or lightning are uncommon, but hail is often de¬ 
structive in the spring. Near the Persian gulf the hot wind 
called Samuel sometimes suffocates the unwary traveller. 

Persia may be called a country of mountains; and where 
great plains occur they are generally desert. The most 
remarkable feature of the country is the want of rivers. 
Except in the north, and some parts of the western moun¬ 
tains, even trees are uncommon, 


PERSIA. 


341 


Soil and Agriculture. The soil in the central 
and southern provinces may be regarded as unfertile. 
Hence the chief industry of the Persian farmer is employ¬ 
ed in watering his lands, d hose in the north aie suffici¬ 
ently rich and fertile. ; 

The most common grain of Persia is wheat, which is 
excellent \ but rice is a more universal aliment. Bailey 
and millet are also sown. The plough is small, and the 
ground merely scratched. After which the spade is also 
used, to form the ground into squares, with ledges or utile 
banks to retain the water. T he dung is chiefly human, and 
that of pigeons mingled with earth, ano preserved for two 
years to abate its heat. 

Rivers. The river of Ahwaz rises in the moun¬ 
tains of Elwend, and pursues a southern course tiil it 
enters the estuary of the Tigris and Euphrates conjoined. 
This seems to be the Gyndes of Herodotus, and is one of 
the most considerable in Persia. 

From the range of mountains to the N. E. several rivers 
of short course fall into the Persian gulph, one oi the most 
considerable being the Rud or Divrud, which joins the 
mouth of that gulph. The rivers ot Mekran are ol more 
considerable course, as the Krenk and Mekshid, which, 
conjoined, form the river of Mend, so called from a town 
by which it passes. 

To the YV. the rivers of Tedjen or Tedyen, the ancient 
Ochus, flows 1 into the Caspian ; which also receives many 
small streams from the mountains of Mazendran. i he 
Kizel Ozen, or Seefid Rud (the Mardus of antiquity) rises 
on the confines of Turkey, and falls into the Caspian below 
Lan go rod. 

Farther to the N. the large river Aras, the ancient Araxes, 
falls into the Kur or Cyrus, both rising in the Caucasian 
mountains, and pursuing a course of extreme rapidity. 

The central rivers of Persia remain to be mentioned, 
most of which are soon lost in sandy deserts, but deserve 
attention from their historical celebrity. i he Zendeuud 
rises in the western chain of Elwend, and passes by Is¬ 
pahan. 

But the most important river in this quarter is that which 
passes between Shiraz and Istakar, or the celebrated ruins 
of Persepoiis, called the Bundamir, and supposed to be the 
ancient Araxes. This celebrated river flows into a salt 

F f 2 


342 


PERSIA. 


lake called Baktagan, atid which also receives a considera¬ 
ble stream from the N. E. called the Kuren. 

The largest and most remarkable inland river is the Hin- 
mend, of the province of Segistan, which rises from two 
widely separated sources. These streams join not far to 
the E. of Bost, whence the river pursues a westerly course, 
and divides into many branches, which are lost in the cen¬ 
tral deserts of Persia. 

Lakes. Among the lakes of Persia, the most con¬ 
siderable beyond all comparison is the Aria Palus of an¬ 
tiquity. This large lake is in the western part of the pro¬ 
vince of Segistan, and the length is thirty leagues, by a 
day’s journey in breadth ; the water is fresh and full of fish. 

The salt lake of Baktagan, about fifty miles E. of Shiraz, 
is represented in the maps as about forty B. miles in 
length, and the breadth about ten. 

Ear to the N. W. appears the large lake of Urmia, said 
to be about fifty B. miles in length, by about half the 
breadth. 

Mountains. The first object, even in a short ac¬ 
count of the Persian mountains, must be to trace the direc¬ 
tion of the chief chains It seems that the Caucasian ridge 
extends to the west of Ghilan and south of Mazendran, till 
it expire in Corasan, on the S. E. of the Caspian sea. 

The southernmost chain is described as running parallel 
with the Persian gulph N. W. and S. E. at about the dis¬ 
tance of 50 B. miles. 

A third range of mountains of very great height, seems 
to continue in the same direction with this last, to the S. of 
the lake of Urmia, where it is connected with the Cauca¬ 
sian ridge. This is the grandest range of mountains in 
Persia. 

A parallel ridge on the W. called by the Turks Aiagha 
Tag, separates Assyria from Media. Mount Ararat is re¬ 
presented as standing solitary in the midst of a wide plain., 
but might rather be classed with the range of Caucasus. 

Hetzardara, or the thousand mountains, form a branch 
on the north of Fars, and one part of it, which gives rise to 
the river of Ispahan, is called Koh Zerdeh. 

A low range, called Meder by D’Anville, passes N. E. 
through the heart of Kerman ; while that country is divided 
from Mekran by a range in the same direction, called by 
D’Anville Kefez. 


PERSIA. 


343 


Farther to the N. the mountains of Wulli extend from 
the neighbourhood of Shatzan across to the lake of Vachind, 
and expire in the great desert to the S. of Zarang. 

Deserts. The deserts must not be passed in 
complete silence, though few words may suffice. On the 
east of Tigris lat. 33 w a considerable desert commences, 
and extends to the N. of Skuster. This desert may be 
about 140 B. mile* in length, E. to W. and the breadth 
about 80. It is now chiefly possessed by the wandering 
tribes of Arabs, called Beni Kiab. 

The Great Saline Desert extends from the neighbour¬ 
hood of Kom to that of the sea of Zurra, in a line from E. 
to W. of about 400 B. miles ; the breadth from N. to S. 
may be 250 ; but in the latter quarter it may be said to join 
with the great desert of Kerman, which extends about 350 
miles. These two extensive deserts may thus be consider¬ 
ed as stretching N. W. and S. E. for a space of about 700 
miles, by a medial breadth of about 200 (even not including 
in the length other 200 miles of the desert of Mekran ;) 
thus intersecting this wide empire into two nearly equal 
portions, as before explained. This vast extent is impreg¬ 
nated with nitre and other salts, which taint the neighbour¬ 
ing lakes and rivers. In the south of Mekran and towards 
the Indus are other deserts of great extent. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. On 
the mountainous ridges adjoining the Caspian are found 
the cypress, the cedar, and several other kinds of pines, 
while the lower hills and scars of rocks are shaded and 
adorned with lime trees, oak, acacias, chesnuts and pop¬ 
lars ; the sumach, whose astringent wood is so essential to 
the arts of dyeing and tanning, grows here in vast abun¬ 
dance ; and the manna ash tree is scarcely less common. 
The most esteemed of the cultivated fruits of Europe are 
truly indigenous in Persia, and have probably hence been 
diffused over the whole west. These are the fig, the pome¬ 
granate, the mulberry, the almond, peach, and apricot. 
Orange trees also of an enormous size, and apparently 
wild, are met with in the sheltered parts of the mountains; 
and the deep warm sand on the shore of the Caspian is pe¬ 
culiarly favourable to the culture of the citron and the liquo¬ 
rice. The vine grows here in great luxuriance, and farther 
to the south both cotton and sugar are articles of common 
cultivation. 


344 


PERSIA. 


According to Chardin, the Persian horses are the most 
beautiful even in the East. The Persian steeds are rather 
taller than the saddle horses in England : the head small, 
the legs delicate, and the body well proportioned ; of a 
mild disposition, very laborious, lively and swift. Mules 
are also in considerable request; and the ass resembles the 
European. The camel is also common. The Persian 
cattle resemble the European, except towards Hindostan, 
where they are marked by the hunch on the shoulders. 
Swine are scarce, save in the N. W. provinces. The large 
tailed sheep are more common, that appendage sometimes 
weighs more than thirty pounds, enlarging at the bottom 
in the form of a heart. The flocks are most numerous in 
the nothern provinces of Erivan. The few forests contain 
abundance of deer and antelopes ; while the mountains pre¬ 
sent wild goats. Hares are common in the numerous 
wastes. The ferocious animals are chiefly concealed in the 
forests, as the bear and boar, the lion in the western parts, 
with the leopard, and according to some accounts, the small 
or common tvger. The wild ass is found in the central de¬ 
serts. Pigeons are particularly numerous ; and the partridges 
are uncommonly large and excellent, The boolbul, or ori¬ 
ental nightingale, enlivens the spring with its varied song. 
The Persians have been long accustomed to tame beasts 
of prey, so as to hunt with leopards, panthers, and ounces. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of this extensive 
country seems neither various nor important, the metals in 
general being of an inferior quality. 

Natural Curiosities. Among the chief natural 
curiosities must be named the fountains of naphtha, or pure 
rock oil, in the neighbourhood of Baku, on the western 
coast of the Caspian, particularly in the adjoining promon¬ 
tory of Ashberon. The land is dry and rocky,,and there 
are several small ancient temples, in one of which, near the 
altar, a large hollow cane is fixed in the ground, and from 
the end issues a blue flame, seemingly more pure and gen¬ 
tle than that produced by ardent spirits. From a horizon¬ 
tal gap in an adjoining rock there also issues a similar 
flame. 

“ The earth round the place for above two miles has this 
surprising property, that, by taking two or three inches of 
the surface, and applying a live coal, the part which is so 
uncovered immediately takes fire, almost before the coal 


PERSIA. 


345 


touches the earth: the flame makes the soil hot, but does 
not consume it, nor affect what is near it with any degree 
of heat. 

“ If a cane or tube, even of paper, be set about two inches 
in the ground, confined and close with the earth below, and 
the top of it touched with a live coal and blown upon, im¬ 
mediately a flame issues, without hurting either the cane 
or paper, provided the edges be covered with clay ; and 
this method they nse for light in their houses, which have 
only the earth for the floor : three or four of these lighted 
canes will hoil water in a pot, and thus they dress their 
victuals. The flame may be extinguished in the same 
manner as that of spirits of wine.” 


INDEPENDENT TATARY. 



ALTHOUGH the descriptions already given in this 
volume of Asiatic Russia and the Chinese empire, com¬ 
prize the far greater part of what geographers by a vague 
term denominate Tatary ; yet the title of Independent 1 a- 
tary becomes unexceptionable, when confined to the bounds 
of the present description, for the Uzbeks and Kirguses are 
of undoubted Tatar origin ; and their country must still be 
regarded as independent of the great neighbouring powers, 
China, Russia, and Persia. 

Extent. The extent of territory possessed by 
these tribes, may be measured from the Caspian sea to the 
mountains of Belur, a space of not less than <70 B. miles. 
From the mountains of Gaur in the south to the Russian 
boundaries on the north of the desert of Issim, may be 
near 1500 B. miles ; but of this length a great part is de¬ 
sert. 

Towns. The chief towns of this extensive region, 
by all accounts, are Chashgar and Yarcand, followed towards 
the N. E. by Axu or Aksu; Chialish, also called Yulduz, 
and by the Turks Karashar or the black city ; and Turfan, 
Hami or Camil, with its surrounding villages, is rather con¬ 
sidered as a detached province, for some ages under the 
protection of China. 

Religion. The prevailing religion is the Maho¬ 
metan, for the Kalmuk conquerors, though they retained 
their idolatry, were tolerant to others. 

The population cannot be extensive, and is supposed 
chiefly to consist of original Bucharians, who are described 
as of a swarthy complexion, though some be very fair, and 
of elegant forms. They are said to be polite and benevo- 




independent tatary. 


34 7 


lent, and their language is probably that called the Zaga- 
thian, which is the same with the Turkish, that speech 
having supplanted their native tongue; for that the chief 
population is original seems to be allowed, though there 
be a great mixture of Tatars, or Turcomans, and a few 
Kalmuks. The dress of the men does not reach below the 
calf of the leg, with girdles like the Polish. The female 
raiment is similar, with long ear-rings like those of Tibet: 
the hair is also worn in very long tresses, decorated with 
ribbons. They tinge their nails with henna. Both sexes 
wear trowsers, with light boots of Russia leather. The 
head-dress resembles the Turkish. The houses are gene¬ 
rally of stone, decorated with some Chinese articles. They 
are cleanly in their food, which often consists of minced 
meat; and, like the Russians, they preserve their victuals 
frozen for a considerable time. Tea is the general drink. 
The wives are purchased ; and the ceremonies of marriage, 
&c. differ little from those of other Mahometans, the mul¬ 
lahs or priests having great influence. They have small 
copper coins; but weigh gold and silver like the Chinese, 
with whom they maintained a considerable commerce be¬ 
fore the Kalmuk invasion, and which is now probably more 
productive than ever by their union under the same sove¬ 
reign. They are not warlike ; but use the lance, sabre, 
and bow, while the rich have coats of mail. The country 
is very productive of many kinds of fruits, and particularly 
wine. They are said to have many mines of gold and sil¬ 
ver. On the melting of the snows abundance of gold is 
found in the torrents, which they carry to China, and even 
to Tobolsk in Siberia. Precious stones, and even diamonds 
are also found ; and one of the products is musk, probably 
from the southern mountains near Tibet, in which last 
country the animal abounds. In contradiction to the usual 
course of nature, the southern part bordering on the vast 
Alps of Tibet is colder than the northern, which is protect¬ 
ed by the inferior ridge of Alak. As the dress is chiefly cot¬ 
ton it is probable that the plant abounds in the country. 

Kiiiguses. About one half of Independent Tatary is 
occupied by the Kirguses in the north, a people of undoubt¬ 
ed Tataric origin, and the Uzbeks in the South. 

Stkpp of Issim. The great stepp, or desert of 
Issim, divides these Kirguses from Siberia : but this exten¬ 
sive plain must not however be regarded as a mere de 


S48 


INDEPENDENT TATARY. 


sert, as it is said that many ancient tombs occur in its wide 
expanse, as well as in the Barabinian stepp, between the 
Irtish, and the Orb, which last consists of a tolerable soil, 
and presents several forests of birch. 

The Kirguses are supposed to be so called from the 
founder of their hord ; and have from time immemorial 
been here classed under three divisions of Great, Middle, 
and Lesser, and are supposed to compose a population of 
about 720,000 souls. 

Manners, See. The Kirguses have gradually mov¬ 
ed from the east towards the west. Their tents are of a 
kind of felt; their drink kumiss, made of acidulated mare’s 
milk. The Great Hord is considered as the source of the 
two others. They lead a wandering life. Each hord has 
its particular Khan. Their features are Tataric, with the 
flat nose and small eyes ; but not oblique like those of the 
Monguls and Chinese. These have horses, camels, cattle, 
sheep, and goats. It was asserted that some individuals in 
the Middle hord had 10,000 horses, 300 camels, 3 or 4000 
cattle, 20,000 sheep, and more than 2000 goats. Their 
dromedaries furnish a considerable quantity of woolly hair, 
which is sold to the Russians and Bucharians, being annu¬ 
ally clipped like that of sheep. Their chief food is mutton, 
and so exquisite is the lamb that it is sent from Orenburg 
to Petersburg for the tables of the palace. The lamb 
skins are the most celebrated after those of Bucharia, being 
damasked as it were by cloathing the little animal in coarse 
linen, but the wool of the sheep is coarse. The stepps 
supply them with objects of the chase, wolves, foxes, bad¬ 
gers, antelopes, ermines, weazles, marmots, See. In the 
southern and eastern mountains are found wild sheep, the 
ox of Tibet, which seems to delight in snowy Alps ; with 
chamois, chacals, tigers and wild asses. 

As the Kirgusians regard each other as brethren, their 
slaves are captives whom they take in their incursions. 
Their dress is the common Tataric. with large trowsers 
and pointed boots. The ladies ornament their heads with 
the necks of herons, disposed like horns. 

Trade. The Kirgusians carry on some trade 
with Russia. Sheep, to the amount of 1 0.000 are annually 
brought to Orenburg ; with horses, cattle, lamb-skins, ca¬ 
mels wool, and camlets. In return they take manufactur¬ 
ed articles, chiefly clothes and furniture. From Buchaiia, 


INDEPENDENT TATARY. 


349 


Khiva, and Tashkund, they receive arms and coats of mail. 
They celebrate an annual festival in honour of the dead, 
and are addicted to sorceries and other idle superstitions. 

History. Even this barren region, now inhabit¬ 
ed by the Kirguses, has been the scene of considerable 
events. However degraded at present, it has been held 
by successive nations of high repute, from the Mas- 
sagetaj of early times to the devastating Turks. These 
last imparted the name of Turkistan, having migiated 
from the mountains of Bogdo, and in the sixth century 
spread to the Caspian ; while the Eygurs seem to have 
succeeded them in their original seats. As the Turks found¬ 
ed their first western settlements in the regions now held 
by the Kirguses, they thence received the name of Turkis¬ 
tan. From this centre of their power issued those Turkish 
armies, which have changed the destinies of so many na¬ 
tions. The Turks and Huns may be considered as one and 
the same Tataric race, totally unknown to Europeans till 
the appearance of the latter. The Huns, who appeared 
about A. D. 375, by their peculiar features impressed the 
writers of the time as a new and unknown race, having 
seemingly passed in one course of depredation from Asia to 
Europe ; but the Turks, though originally the same people, 
perhaps warned by the fate of their brethren, made a slow 
and gradual progress ; and appear to have been mingled by 
marriages and conquests with the Slavonic and Gothic 
tribes, on the N. and E. of the Caspian. Such was the ori¬ 
gin of the name of Turkistan ; from which the Turks 
spread desolation over the most beautiful countries of the 
east, and even threatened the liberties of Europe. 

Kharism. The country of Kharism extends from 
the Gihon or Ainu to the Caspian sea, bounded on the N. 
and S. by wide deserts, the chief town being now Khiva, 
but anciently Urghenz. This country is about 350 British 
miles in length and breadth, and in the time of Zingis was 
a powerful kingdom. 

At present this state is almost restricted to the district 
of Khiva, the circuit of which may be performed on horse¬ 
back in three days ; but there are live walled cities, or ra¬ 
ther towns, within half a day’s journey of each other. 
u The khan is absolute, and entirely independent of any 
other power, except the Mulla Bashi, or high priest, by 
whom he is controlled. The inhabitants differ very little 
* G g 


350 


INDEPENDENT TATARY. 


from the Kirguses ; the latter live in tents, whilst the others 
inhabit cities and villages. Their only trade is with Bok¬ 
hara and Persia, whither they carry cattle, furs, and hides, 
all which they have from the Kirguses and Turkoman Ta¬ 
tars. The place itself produces little more than cotton, 
lamb furs of a very mean quality, and a small quantity of 
raw silk, some of which they manufacture.” The town of 
Khiva stands on a rising ground, with three gates, and a 
strong wall of earth, very thick, and much higher than the 
houses : there are turrets at small distances, and a broad 
deep ditch full of water. It occupies a considerable space, 
and commands a pleasant prospect of the adjacent plains, 
which the industry of the inhabitants has rendered very 
fertile; but the houses are low, mostly built with mud, the 
roofs flat, and covered with earth. 

As the merchants of Khiva brought gold and gems to 
Astrakan, probably from the two Bucharias, an idea was 
suggested to Peter the Great that these precious products 
were found in Kharism, and he in consequence attempted a 
settlement. But the Russians, to the number of 3000, ad¬ 
vancing under the command of a Circassin prince called 
Beckawitz, towards Khiva, were all cut off by the Uzbeks. 

Great Bucharia. By far the most important 

part of Independent Tatary is comprised under the name 

of Great Bucharia. It is part of the Touran of the ancient 

Persians, and was chiefiv known to the Greeks and Ro- 
* * 

mans by the names of Sogdiana and Bactriana. 

It extends more than 700 British miles in length from 
N.to S. by a medial breadth of about 350, thus rather ex¬ 
ceeding Great Biitain in size. The northern boundary 
appears to be the mountains of Argun. On the western 
side the river Amu and deserts divide Bucharia from 
Kharizm and Corasan : while on the S. and E. the moun¬ 
tains of Gaur, or Paropamisus, the Hindoo Koh, and the 
chain of Belur, are perpetual barriers. 

History. The original population of this country 
was Scythian, like that of Persia ; and it was once perhaps 
the seat and source of the most ancient Persian monarchy. 
This region was not much known till after the Mahome¬ 
tan conquest of Persia in the seventh century. In 1494 
Sultan Baber, a descendant of Timur, was with his Mon¬ 
gols expelled from Great Bucharia; and proceeding into 
Kindostan, there founded the Mogul power. The Tatari- 


independent tatary. 


351 


an victors, called Uzbeks, established a powerful monarchy 
in Buchavia ; and successive khans held the sceptre from. 
1494 to 1658, soon after which period this great and fertile 
country appears to have been divided into several domina¬ 
tions, under several khans. In the deficiency of recent 
accounts, it can only be conjectured that the chief powers 
of this country are the khan of Balk in the S. and of Sa¬ 
na arcand in the N. 

Religion, he. The religion of the Uzbeks and 
Bucharians is the Mahometan, and the government of the 
khans is despotic. There is no precise evidence of the state 
of the population, which consists of the Tatars and or the 
Bucharians. It is probable that upon an emergency an 
army might be mustered of 100,000 irregular troops. 1 here 
is no statement of the annual revenue of these fertile pro¬ 
vinces : it can hardly exceed half a million sterling. 

Manners and Customs. 1 he manners and cus¬ 
toms of the Uzbeks are similar to those of the other Ta¬ 
tars : but they are supposed to be the most spirited and in¬ 
dustrious of these barbarians. T hough many reside in 
tents in the summer, yet in winter they inhabit the towns 
and villages. Those of Balk are the most civilized, and 
carry on a considerable trade with Persia and Hindustan. 
The native Bucharians, or Tajiks, are comparatively fair ; 
and correspond in elegance of form and features, with those 
of Little Bucharia, whom they also resemble in the mode 
of dress. The Bucharians never bear arms. The Uzbeks, 
on the contrary, are no strangers to the use of the musket; 
and it is said that even their women sometimes attend their 
husbands to the field. The language of the Bucharians 
has never been investigated, though it be probably l ersian, 
like their physiognomy, but intermingled with 1 urkish 
Mongolian, and even Hindoo terms. 

Cities. The chief city ol Great Bucharia is Sa- 
marcand, on the southern bank ot the river Sogo. 

Of this celebrated capital there is no recent account, but 
it seems greatly to have declined since the time of Timur. 
Towards the beginning of the last century, it was. foitificd 
with ramparts of turf, the houses being mostly of hardened 
clay, though some were of stone, from quarries in the 
neighbourhood. The khan of Great Bucharia commonly 
encamped in the adjacent meadows, the castle being almost 
ruinous. 


352 


INDEPENDENT TAT ARY. 


Bokhara, on the same river, has repeatedly contested 
the metropolitan dignity with Samarcand. When visited 
by the English agents in 174 !, it was a large and populous 
city, subject to its khan ; the houses of clay, but the nu¬ 
merous mosques of brick. The citizens manufactured soap 
and calico ; and the chiel products were cotton, rice and 
cattle. From the Kalmuks they received rhubarb and musk; 
and from Badakshan precious stones. 

Balk is a distinguished city on the river Dehash, in the 
beginning of the last century subject to its particular khan 
of the Uzbeks ; being then the most considerable of all their 
cities, large and populous with houses of brick or stone ; 
while the castle or palace consisted almost entirely of mar¬ 
ble from the neighbouring mountains. The people were 
the most civilized of all the Tatars, and beautiful silks 
were prepared from the product of the country : it being 
the chief seat of the trade between Bucharia and Hindostan. 

Anderab is the chiel city of Tokarestan ; in the neigh¬ 
bourhood of which were rich quarries of lapis lazuli, a sub¬ 
stance with which Great Bucharia seems chiefly to have 
supplied the ancient and modern world. 

Badakshan, on the liver Amu, in the last century was 
small, but well built and populous ; and its inhabitants were 
enriched by the gold, silver, and rubies found in the neigh¬ 
bourhood. 

Commerce. Besides the caravans to Persia, Hin¬ 
dostan, and China, some trade is carried on with the Rus¬ 
sians, the Bucharian merchants not only furnishing their 
own products but others from the eastern countries to which 
they trade. 

Climate. The climate in general appears to be 
excellent, the heat even of the southern provinces being 
tempered by the high mountains capped with perpetual 
snow. Though there are numerous rivers, hills, and moun¬ 
tains, there seems to be a deficiency of wood ; but near the 
rivers the soil is very productive, and the grass sometimes 
exceeds the height of a man. 

Rivers. The chief rivers of Independent Tatary 
are the Amu and theSirr, or river Shash. 

1 he Amu rises in the mountains of Belur, more than 
200 British miles N. E. from Badakshan, and falls into the 

sea of Aral, after a course of probably not less than 900 B. 
miles. 


INDEPENDENT TAT ARY. 


353 


The Sirr, or river of Shash, also rises in the mountains 
of Belur, and falls into the eastern side of the sea of Aral, 
after a course of about 550 B. miles. 

In the country possessed by the Three Hords of Kirguses 
are also other considerable streams, now obscure, but re¬ 
markable in the history of Zingis and his successors, when 
directing their conquests to the N. ol the Caspian, they 
subdued the greater part of European Russia. 

Lakes. The most considerable lake is the sea of 
Aral ; next the lake Tengis, which latter is near 140 B. 
miles in length, by half that breadth. 

Mountains. The principal range of mountains is 
that of Belur, which, according to all accounts, is a great 
alpine chain, covered with perpetual snow, 'i he chief 
branches proceed towards the W. lor on the E. is the high 
central plain of Asia, full of deserts, as if nature had here 
performed her earliest operations, when this first and great¬ 
est continent emerged from the primeval waters. Except 
in some few places, sheltered from the N. and E. this ex¬ 
tensive elevation is exposed to extreme cold, the reverse of 
the deserts of Africa. 

The chain of Belur, which was the ancient Imaus, pro¬ 
ceeds nearly N. and S. and is continued by the mountains 
of Alakon the N. of Little Bucharia, which join the great 
Bogdo, the highest mountain in central Asia. On the S. 
the Belur seems more intimately connected with the Hin¬ 
doo Koh than with the northern ridges of Tibet. 

Minerals. The alpine heights in the S. E. con¬ 
tain gold, silver, and a peculiar production, the balay, or 
pale rose-coloured ruby. In the tenth century, Fergana 
produced sal ammoniac, vitriol, iron, copper, gold, tur- 
koises, and quicksilver. In the mountain of Zarka there 
were springs of naphtha and bitumen, and “ a stone that 
takes fire and burns/* which must imply coal. The ve¬ 
nerable father of Arabian geography, Ebn Haukal, has 
compensated for the penury of his information respecting 
natural history, by an animated character of the people, 
which may he here introduced as a relief from the dryness 
of some of the details. 

u Such are the generosity and liberality of the inhabi¬ 
tants, that no one turns aside from the rites of hospitality ; 
so that a person contemplating them in this light, would 
imagine that all the families of the land were but one house. 

g g 2 


354 


INDEPENDENT TATARY. 


When a traveller arrives there every person endeavours to 
attract him to himself, that he may have opportunities of 
performing kind offices for the stranger : and the best proof 
of their hospitable and generous disposition is, that every 
peasant, though possessing but a bare sufficiency, allots a 
portion of his cottage for the reception of a guest. On 
the arrival of a stranger they contend one with another for 
the pleasure of taking him to their home, and entertaining 
him. Thus, in acts of hospitality they expend their in¬ 
comes. I happened once to be in Soghd, and there I saw a 
certain palace, or great building, the doors of which were 
fastened back with nails against the walls. I asked the rea¬ 
son of this, and they informed me that it was an hundred 
years and more since those doors had been shut, all that 
time they had continued open, day and night, strangers 
might arrive there at the most unseasonable hours, or in any 
numbers, for the master of the house had provided every 
tiling necessary both for the men and for their beasts : and 
he appeared with a delighted and joyful countenance when 
the guests tarried a while.” 


ARABIA. 


1 HE last remaining country of the Asiatic continent 
is Arabia, a region more highly celebrated than precisely 
known. By the ancients it was divided into three unequal 
portions ; Petr tea, or the Stoney, a small province on the 
N. of the Red sea, between Egypt and Palestine, so called 
from its bare granitic rocks and mountains, the most re¬ 
markable ot which is Sinai : Arabia Deserta was the east¬ 
ern part, so far as known to the ancients ; while Arabia the 
Happy comprised the S. W. on the shores of the Red sea. 

Boundaries. The boundaries on the W. and S. 
are marked by the Red sea, or Arabian gulf, and the In¬ 
dian ocean ; while the Persian gulf extends a considerable 
way on the E. and this boundary is considered as continued 
by the deserts to the west of the Euphrates. The northern 
limits rise to an angle about an hundred miles to the E. of 
Palmyra. Thence the line proceeds S. W. to the S. E. 
angle of the Mediterranean, a northern boundary of Arabia 
Petnea. 

From the cape of Babelmandeb to the extreme angle on 
the Euphrates, the length is not less than 1800 B. miles ; 
while the medial breadth may be about 800. 

Population. The population is original and indi¬ 
genous, the Arabians being the same race with the Assy- 
ranis of remote antiquity, the probable fathers of the Syri¬ 
ans, Egyptians and Abyssinians, whose languages are in¬ 
timately allied, as is that of the Hebrews ; being totally dif¬ 
ferent irom that ol the Persians. By all accounts, sacred 
and profane, the Assyrians were the most ancient civilized 
and commercial people. r l he merchants of Tyre had ex¬ 
plored the shores of Britain, while the Chinese seem not to 



356 


ARABIA. 


have discovered those of Japan. This early civilization will 
excite the less surprise, when it is considered that even the 
modern Arabians have never been subdued by any invader, 
and in comparatively modern times they have vindicated the 
fame of their ancient pre-eminence by giving religion and 
laws to half of Asia and Africa, and a great part of Europe. 
The Arabian chalifs in Spain, Africa, and Egypt, as well 
as at Bagdad, cultivated the arts and sciences ; and shewed 
a great superiority to the barbarous powers of Europe at 

that period. . 

Historical Epochs. The history of interior 

Arabia is obscure, till the time of Mahomet; and their 
traditional songs chiefly celebrate Antar, a hero renowned 
like the Rustan of the Persians. Arabia never appears to 
have been united, either in a republic, or under one mo¬ 
narch, except in the time of Mahomet and his successors. 
The kingdom of Yemen, or the S. W. extremity, has been 
repeatedly subdued by the Abyssinians, the Persians, the 
Sultans of Egypt, and the Turks ; being separated from 
the interior by deserts, as well as mountains : but the wide 
inland countries of Neged have defied all invasion, and, far 
from being conquered, are almost unknown. Yet Niebuhr 
informs us that according to Arabian traditions the whole 
country was subject in the earliest times to a race of mo- 
narchs called Tobba, like the Pharaohs of Egypt, worship¬ 
pers of fire from the country of Samarcand, who vanquish¬ 
ed Arabia, and introduced civilization. 

Religion. Before the time of Mahomet human 
sacrifices appear to have been offered b) the natives of this 
country, as well as by their brethren the Syrians and Car¬ 
thaginians. Sabianism afterwards spread from Chaldea. 
Nor was the Christian religion unknown before the ap¬ 
pearance of Mahomet. About the middle of last century 
a Sheik of Yemen, called Mekkrami. established a kind of 
new sect of Mahometanism : and about the same period 
what may be called a new religion was commenced in the 
province El Ared,by Abdul Wahheb ; which by the latest 
accounts begins to make considerable progress under his 
successors. ^ He is said to have taught that God alone 
should be adored and invocated : while the mention of Ma¬ 
homet or any other prophet, he considered as approaching 
to idolatry. 


ARABIA. 


357 


Government. This country is divided among 
numerous Imams and Sheiks. The title of Imam implying 
Vicar, that is of Mahomet, is ecclesiastic ; and implies a 
common priest, while the Mulla presides in a court of jus¬ 
tice, and is considered as synonymous with Chalif, J anc VEmir 
El Mumenin , or Prince of the faithful. The inferior gov¬ 
ernments are conducted by Sheiks, a term merely imply¬ 
ing old men, and seems rarely mingled with the ecclesias¬ 
tic character. 

The throne of Yemen is hereditary ; and the Imam, or 
Emir acknowledges no superior in spiritual or temporal af¬ 
fairs. He possesses the prerogative of peace and war ; but 
cannot be called despotic, as he cannot deprive even a Jew, 
or a Pagan of life, but the cause must be tried before the 
supreme tribunal of Sana, consisting of several Cadis, while 
he is only president. When an Emir shows a despotic dis¬ 
position he is commonly dethroned. The next in rank 
are the Fakis, a title so lax as seemingly only to denote 
gentlemen. The governors of districts are called Dolas; 
or, if superior in birth, Walis. The Dola in some degree 
corresponds with the Turkish Pasha. The chief magis¬ 
trate of a small town without a garrison is called Sheik ; 
as a superior governor is sometimes called Emir, and in 
little villages Hakim. In each district there is also a Cadi; 
who, like those in Turkey, are judges of ecclesiastic and 
civil affairs ; but in Arabia the prince himself is the high 
priest. Plis army, in peace, was computed at 4000 infan¬ 
try and 1000 cavalry ; the soldiers being, as usual in the 
east, without uniforms. There is no navy, and the vessels 
in general are very rudely constructed, those of Yemen 
having sails made of matting. 

Manners and Customs. In Yemen murder is 
punished with death, but more often left to private revenge. 
In politeness the Arabs vie with the Persians, and there 
are still remains of their ancient hospitality. The common 
salutation is the Salam Alskum , or Peace be with you ; in 
pronouncing which words they raise the right hand to the 
heart. On meeting in their wide deserts the salutations 
are multiplied ; and the hand of a superior is kissed in to¬ 
ken of respect. The houses, though of stone, are meanly 
constructed ; the apartments of the men being in front, 
those of the women behind. Of a middle stature, thin, and 
dried as it were by the sun, the Arab is moderate in his 


358 


ARABIA. 


food, the common people seldom exceeding a repast of 
bad bread made from durra, a kind of millet, mixed with 
camels 5 milk, oil, butter, or grease ; the only drink being 
Water. Meat is little used ? even by the rich, who deem it 
unhealthy in a hot climate. The orientals in general being 
water-drinkers they are very fond of pastry. The most 
noted drink is coffee, which they prepare like the Turks ; 
but in Yemen it is rarely used, as in their opinion it heats 
the blood ; but of the shells, or husks of the coffee, they 
prepare a liquor in the manner of tea. Spirituous liquors, 
though forbidden, are not absolutely unknown ; and they 
sometimes smoke a plant resembling hemp, which pro¬ 
duces intoxication ; nor is tobacco neglected, which is 
smoked either in the Turkish or Persian manner. 

Dress. The dress, like that of the Turks and 
Hindoos, is long, often with large browsers, a girdle of 
embroidered leather, and a knife, or dagger. Over the 
shoulder is worn a large piece of fine linen, originally de¬ 
signed to keep off the sun. The head dress seems oppres¬ 
sive, consisting of several bonnets, from ten to fifteen, some 
of linen, others of cotton and woollen, the outmost being of¬ 
ten richly embroidered with gold ; and around this multi¬ 
tude of bonnets is wrapped, what they call a sasch, being a 
large piece of muslin, with fringes of silk or gokb, which 
hang down behind. The women stain their nails red, and 
their feet and hands of a yellowish brown, with henna ; the 
eye lashes are darkened with antimony, as in many other 
oriental countries ; and every art is exerted to render the 
eye brows large and black. Polygamy is confined to the 
rich ; and throughout the whole Mahometan regions is far 
less general than is commonly supposed in Europe. 

Language. The language of the Arabs was, even 
in ancient times, divided into several dialects, as may be 
suspected from its wide diffusion. Even in Yemen there 
are subdivisions ; and polite people use a different enuncia¬ 
tion from the vulgar. The language of the Koran is so dif¬ 
ferent from the modern speech of Mecca, that it is taught 
in the colleges there, as the Latin is at Rome. 

Education. Education is not wholly neglected, 
and many of the common people can read and write, and 
account; while those of rank entertain preceptors to teach 
their children and young slaves. Near every mosque there 
is commonly a school, the masters, as well as the children 


ARABIA. 


359 


of the poor, being supported by legacies. The girls are 
instructed apart by women. In the chief cities are colleges 
for astronomy, astrology, philosophy, medicine, Sec. and 
in the little kingdom of Yemen there are two universities, 
or celebrated academies. 

Cities and Towns. Arabia has been compared 
to acloke of frize, laced with gold, the skirts alone present¬ 
ing cities and other marks of civilization. Mecca u was 
known to the Greeks under the name of Macoraba, and has 
not, in the most flourishing period, exceeded the size and 
populousness of Marseilles. Some latent motive, perhaps 
of superstition, must have impelled the founders in the 
choice of a most unpromising situation. It is situated in a 
plain about two miles long and one mile broad, at the foot of 
three barren mountains : the soil is a rock ; the water even 
of the holy well of Zamzem, is bitter or brackish ; the pas¬ 
tures are remote from the city ; and grapes are transport¬ 
ed above seventy miles, from the gardens of Tayef. By 
the sea port of Gedda, at the distance only of forty miles, 
they maintain an easy correspondence with Abyssinia. 1 he 
treasures of Africa are conveyed over the peninsula to 
Gerrha or Katif, in the province of Bahrein, a city built, as 
it is said, of rock salt, by the Chaldean exiles; and from 
thence, with the native pearls of the Persian gulf, they are 
floated on rafts to the mouth of the Euphrates. In the mar¬ 
kets of Saana and Merab, in the harbours of Oman and 
Aden, the camels of the Koreishites were laden with a pre¬ 
cious cargo of aromatics : a supply of corn and manufac¬ 
tures was purchased in the fairs of Bostra and Damascus; 
the lucrative exchange diffused plenty and riches in the 
streets of Mecca ; and the noblest of her sons united the 
love of arms with the profession of merchandise.” 

The government of this holy city,is vested in a sheref, 
who is a temporal prince ; and his revenue is increased by 
the donations of Mahometan sovereigns. 

Medina stands about 200 B. miles N. of Mecca, being, 
as well as the latter, about a day’s journey froi* the shores, 
of the Red Sea. It is. according to Niebuhr, a small town; 
•surrounded with a paltry wall, little remarkable except for 
the tomb of Mahomet. 

Sana, or Saana, in Yemen, is reputed at present the chief 
city of Arabia. It is situated at the bottom of a moun¬ 
tain called Nikkum, near which is a spacious garden. 1 he 


360 


ARABIA. 


city is not very extensive, as one may walk round it in the 
space of an hour, so that the circuit cannot exceed four 
miles ; and even of this small space a part is occupied by 
gardens. The walls are of brick, with seven gates ; and 
there are several palaces of burnt brick, or of stone ; but 
the common houses are of bricks, dried in the sun. There 
are several simseras, or caravanseras, for merchants and 
travellers. There are excellent fruits, particularly grapes 
of many varieties. About six miles to the north there is 
a pleasant dale, enlivened with several rivulets ; and to the 
west is a considerable stream. 

When such is the chief city of Arabia, the description of 
the others cannot be very interesting. 

Edifices. Among the chief edifices of Arabia, 
must be named the Kaba, or temple of Mecca, which, ac¬ 
cording to the representation of Niebuhr, rather resembles 
the old Asiatic temples of Hindostan and Siam than a 
mosque, being an open square, encompassed with a colon¬ 
nade, and ornamented with minarets. In this open space, 
which, as well as that of Medina, it seems improper to call 
amosk, there are five or six houses of prayer, or chapels; 
while in the centre is a small square edifice, peculiarly 
styled the Kaba, in which is fixed a black stone, the early 
object of Arabian adoration. 

Manufactures, &c. The manufactures of Ara¬ 
bia are of little consequence. Even in Yemen the works 
in gold and silver, and the coin itself, are produced by Jew¬ 
ish manufactories. In all Arabia there are neither wind¬ 
mills nor water-mills. Some musquets are made in the 
country, but they are mere matchlocks of mean execution. 
At Mocha there is one glass-house ; and there are in Ye¬ 
men some coarse linen manufactures. Aloes, myrrh, and 
frankincense, though of inferior kind, constitute, with cof¬ 
fee, the chief products of Arabia. 

The Arabian intercourse with Hindostan has greatly 
declined since the discoveries of the Portuguese. From 
Yemen are exported coffee, aloes, myrrh, olibanum, or an 
inferior kind of frankincense, senna, ivory, and gold from 
Abyssinia. The Fhiropean imports were iron, steel, can¬ 
non, lead, tin, cochineal, mirrors, knives, sabres, cut glass, 
and false pearls. 

Climate and Seasons. In the mountains of Ye¬ 
men there is a regular rainy season, from the middle of 


ARABIA. 


361 


June to the end of September ; but even then the sky is 
rarely covered with clouds for twenty-four hours at a time; 
and during the remainder of the year a cloud is scarcely to 
be seen. At Maskat, and other places the periodical rains 
vary. In the plains of Yemen rain is sometimes unknown 
for a whole year ; and in July and August the thermometer 
will be 98°, while at Sana in the mountains it is 85®. In 
the northern parts chiefly are perceived the disastrous ef¬ 
fects of the burning wind called Samiel. 

Soil and Agriculture. The general aspect of 
Arabia presents a central desert of great extent, with a few 
fertile oases or isles, as in Africa ; while the flourishing pro¬ 
vinces are those situated on the shores of the sea, which 
supplies rain sufficient to maintain the vegetation; 

Agriculture is occupied in the production of beautiful 
wheat, maize, clurra a kind of millet, barley, beans, lentils, 
rape ; with the sugar cane, tobacco, and cotton. A few 
dyeing drugs, especially indigo and Indian madder, are also 
cultivated. The plough is simple ; and the pick is used 
instead of the spade. The chief exertion of agricultural 
industry is to water the lands from the rivulets and wells, 
or by conducting the rains. The harvest is tom up by the 
roots, and forage cut with the sickle. 

Rivers. The Euphrates is sometimes considered 
as an Arabian river ; but in Arabia Proper what are called 
rivers are mere torrents, which descend from the moun¬ 
tains during the rains, and for a short period afterwards. 
The most important river is probably that which rises near 
Sana, and joins the Indian sea below Harjiah. The little 
river of Krim flows from Mahrah into the same sea, and 
is followed by two or three brooks in Omon. 

Mountains. The chief range of mountains seems 
to proceed in the direction of the Red Sea, at various dis¬ 
tances from 30 to l 50 miles, a circumstance which imparts 
extent and fertility to Yemen. In the country of Seger, ’ 
commonly ascribed to Hadramaut, there is a range of hills 
remarkable for the product of frankincense ; and in the di¬ 
vision called Arabia Petrea the celebrated mountain of 
Sinai must not be omitted, which presents two sublime 
summits of red granite. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
champaign country between the shore and the mountains, 
though traversed by streams, is yet too deficient in water 

« h 


ARABIA. 


<“v £<r> 
oO^ 

to support a luxuriant vegetation; the lower parts are chiefly 
occupied by grasses and other humble plants, which afford 
a most grateful sustenance to the Hocks and herds of the 
pastoral tribes that wander over them. The sides of the 
rivers, the valleys, and among the mountains, and the plains 
at their feet, are far superior to the rest of the country. 
Here cultivation and nature seem to contend with each 
other in the richness of their productions. Many of the 
Indian and Persian plants, distinguished for their beauty or 
use, have been transported hither in former ages, and are 
now found in a truly indigenous state ; this is probably the 
case with the tamarind, the cotton ttee, the pomegranate, 
the banyan tree or Indian fig, the sugar cane, and a multi¬ 
tude of valuable species and varieties of melons and gourds. 
Two valuable trees, however, are the peculiar boast of 
Arabia Felix, namely, the coffee, found both cultivated and 
wild, and the amyris opobalsamum, from which is procured 
the balm of Mecca, the most fragrant and costly of all the 
gum resins. Of the palms, it possesses the date, the cocoa 
nut, and the great fan palm. The sycamore ng, the plan¬ 
tain, the almond and apricot, the bead tree, the mimosa 
niiotica and sensitiva, and the orange, nearly complete the 
catalogue of its native arid cultivated trees. 

The horse is the glory of Arabian zoology. They are 
here divided into two great classes, the Kadishi , or com¬ 
mon kind, whose genealogy has not been preserved ; and 
the Kochland , or noble horses, whose breed has been ascer¬ 
tained for two thousand years, proceeding as they fable, 
from the stalls of Solomon. These will bear the greatest 
fatigues, and pass whole days without food. They are said 
to rush on a foe with impetuosity ; and it is asserted that 
some of this noble race, when wounded in battle, will with¬ 
draw to a spot where their master may be secure ; and if 
he fall they will neigh for assistance. They are neither 
large nor beautiful, their race and hereditary qualities being 
the sole objects of estimation. There is also in this coun¬ 
try a superior breed of asses, approaching in form and 
qualities to the mule, and sold at high prices. 

This region, or Africa, seems also the native country of 
the camel, emphatically styled by the orientals the ship of 
the desert. 

The breed of sheep has not'been particularly illustrated ; 
but it would appear that both the wool and mutton are 


ARABIA. 


363 


coarse. The rock goat is said to be found in the moun¬ 
tains of Arabia Petrea. The other animals are the jakkal, 
or chacal ; the hyena towards the Persian gulf ; numerous 
monkeys in the woods of Yemen ; the jerboa, or rat of 
Pharaoh, in Neged: there are also antelopes, and wild oxen, 
with wolves, foxes, and wild boars, and the large and small 
panther. The ostrich is no stranger in the deserts. A 
little slender serpent, called baetan, spotted with black and 
white, is of a nature remarkably poisonous, the bite being 
instant death. The locust too is numerous : but the natives 
esteem the red kind as a fat and juicy food, and view it with 
no more aversion than shrimps or prawns are beheld by us. 

Minerals. Plaving no native gold, the people are 
still addicted to the infatuation of alchymy. Nor is silver 
found except mingled with lead. There are some mines 
of iron, but the metal is brittle. Those agates called 
Mocha*stones, are brought from Surat, and the best car- 
nelians come from the gulf of Cambay. 

Isles. Besides several isles of little consequence 
in the Arabian gulf, there are two islands which deserve 
particular notice. Socotra, about 240 B. miles from the 
southern coast of Arabia, appears in all ages to have be¬ 
longed to that country, and to have been celebrated for the 
production of aloes, still esteemed superior to any other. 
The inhabitants are clearly of Arabian extract. Frankin¬ 
cense, ambergris and coral are found in the neighbouring 
seas. The isle of Bahrin is in the Persian gulf, near the 
Arabian coast, and remarkable for the great pearl fishery 
in its neighbourhood. 


ASIATIC ISLES. 



1. TEE ISLES OF SUNDA, OR THE SUMATRAN CHAIN. 

THIS division of the Asiatic isles comprises Sumatra, 
Java, Balii, Lombok, Sumbava, Florez, and Timor ; with 
several isles of less note in the vicinity of these. 

Sumatra is an island of great extent, being not less than 
950 B. miles in length, by about 200 in breadth. The 
English settlement of Bencoolen, in the S. E. part of this 
island, has occasioned particular attention to its nature and 
productions. It was certainly unknown to the ancients. 
The Arabs seem to have been acquainted with it in the 
ninth century, but it became first known to Europeans in 
the sixteenth. A chain of mountains runs through the 
whole isle; but the height, though great, is not so consider¬ 
able as to retain 3now. Mount Ophir, immediately under 
the equinoctial line, is 13,842 feet above the sea, only 
yielding about 2000 feet to mount Blanc. There are many 
rivers on the western coast, but commonly impeded by 
sand-banks, so as to present few means of navigation. In 
the midst of what is called the Torrid Zone, the thermo¬ 
meter seldom rises above 85°, while in Bengal it attains 
101 ° ; and the inland inhabitants of the mountains use fires 
to dispel the morning cold ; yet frost, snow, and hail are 
unknown. Thunder and lightning are frequent, particular¬ 
ly during the N. W. monsoon. The year has two divisions, 
called the rainy and dry monsoons ; the S. E. or dry, be¬ 
ginning about May, and ending with September; the N. W. 
or wet, beginning in November, and ending about March ; 
the intermediate months, April and May, October and No¬ 
vember, being variable : on the west coast the sea breeze 




ASIATIC ISLES. 


365 


begins about ten in the forenoon, and continues till six in 
the evening ; being succeeded by the land breeze during the 
night. The soil is generally a stiff reddish clay, covered 
with a layer of black mould, the source of perpetual ver¬ 
dure ; but three quarters of the isle, especially towards the 
south, present an impervious forest. There seem to be 
many mines of gold mnixed with copper, of iron and steel; 
but tin is one of the chief exports. There are several vol- 
, canic mountains in Sumatra, as in most of the other islands 
of the oriental archipelago, but eruptions are unfrequent. 
The sea coast is chiefly occupied by the Malays, who seem 
to be recent settlers, and their language a dialect of a 
speech most widely extended, from Malaca nearly as far 
as the western coasts of America, through the innumerable 
islands of the Pacific. The chief native sovereignty is that 
of Menang Cabou, but the Rejangs seem to retain the 
purest race and manners. They are rather short and slend¬ 
er : the noses of infants are flattened, and their ears ex¬ 
tended ; but the eyes are dark and clear. The complexion 
is properly yellow, being without the red tinge, which con¬ 
stitutes a tawny or copper colour : but the superior class 
of women is fair, and commonly of not unpleasing counte¬ 
nances. 

The original clothing is made of the inner bark of trees, 
as in Otaheite ; but the dress of the Malays consists of a 
vest, a robe, and a kind of mantle, with a girdle, in which is 
the crees , or dagger. The villages are commonly on hills, 
and surrounded with fruit trees, the balli, or common hall, 
being in the centre. 1 he houses are of wood and bamboos, 
covered with leaves of palm, standing on pillars, and scaled 
by a rude ladder. The furniture is of course simple, and 
common food rice ; sago, though common, being less used 
than in the islands farther to the east. 1 he horses are 
small but well made, and hardy ; the cows and sheep also 
diminutive. Here are also found the elephant, rhinoceios, 
hippopotamus, tiger, bear, otter, porcupine, deer, wild hog, 
civet cat, with many varieties of the monkey* 1 he buffaloe is 
employedin domestic labour. Among birds, the Sumatran or 
Argus pheasant is of distinguished beauty. The jungle fow*, 
or wild poultry, also appear. Insects of all kinds swarm, 
particularly the destructive termites. The most abundant 
article is pepper, the object of the British settlement; be¬ 
ing produced by a climbing pant resembling a vine. The 

h h 2 


366 


ASIATIC ISLES. 


white pepper is procured by stripping the outer husk from 
the ripe grains. Camphor is another remarkable vegetable 
product, and cassia, a coarse kind of cinnamon, is found in 
the central parts of the country. “ The silk cotton (bombax 
ceiba) is also to be met with in every village. 1 his is to 
appearance, one of the most beautiful raw materials the 
hand of nature has presented ; but owing to the shortness 
and brittleness of the staple, it is esteemed unfit for the 
reel and loom. The commerce is chiefly with Hindostan 
and China. The Malays excel in gold and silver fillagree, 
and in weaving silk and cotton ; but the manufactures are 
imperfect, and the sciences little cultivated. Even the rudest 
tribes of Sumatra and the other Asiatic isles, as far as the ut¬ 
most bounds of this division, display a certain degree of civi¬ 
lization. The panjeran or prince presides over many magis¬ 
trates ; but his government is limited, his power being con¬ 
fined by his poverty. Laws are unknown, the chiefs ren¬ 
dering judgment according to customs. Most crimes are 
compensated by money, murder itself not excepted. Com¬ 
bats of cocks and quails are among the most favourite 
amusements, together with dances, dice, and other games. 
The use of opium is extensive, but rarely leads to other 
excesses. What is called a muck, by the natives mongamo y 
rather proceeds from revenge, or a sense of oppression, 
than from intoxication. 

Several small isles encompass Sumatra, but are too in¬ 
considerable to deserve a place in this epitome. 

Java is not only an extensive island, about 650 B. miles 
in length by about 100 of medial breadth, but is remark¬ 
able for the city of Batavia, the celebrated capital of the 
Dutch possessions. This island, like the former, abounds 
with forests, and presents an enchanting verdure. It seems* 
also intersected by a ridge of mountains, like a spine per¬ 
vading its length. Batavia is strongly fortified with walls, 
and a citadel towards the sea. There are many canals about 
four feet in depth, and the town is large, and well built of 
stone. This metropolis of the oriental archipelago presents 
many nations and languages ; and the Chinese constitute 
the greater part of the inhabitants, being contented for the 
sake of gain to forget the tombs of their ancestors, and the 
laws of their country against emigration. The Malay lan¬ 
guage is here universally understood. The streets are 
planted with large trees, which practice, with the Dutch 


ASIATIC ISLES. 


36 7 


canals, probably contributes to the unhealthiness of this 
spot. The heat is not so intense considered in itself, being 
between 80 ° and 86 °, as from the low situation of the 
town, and the murky exhalations from the bogs, canals, and 
a muddy sea, whence from nine o'clock till four it is im¬ 
possible to walk out. The sun being nearly vertical, rises 
and sets about six throughout the year ; but the noctur¬ 
nal repose is infested by moskitos. In the evening from, 
six to nine, parties are formed, and intemperance assists 
the poison of the climate. The water is also of a bad qua¬ 
lity. The air is so unwholesome, from fetid fogs and other 
causes, that dysenteries and putrid fevers destroy prodigi¬ 
ous numbers ; and of three settlers it is rare that one out¬ 
lives the year. The rainy season begins with December, 
and lasts till March. Crocodiles abound in the rivers, as 
in most of the oriental isles. 

Of Madura, Balli, Lombok, Sumbava, and Florez, little 
is known. Timor was discovered in 1522 , by the compa¬ 
nions of Magalhaens, who found in it alone the white san¬ 
dal wood. The Portuguese, after a long struggle, effected 
a settlement; but were expelled by the Dutch in 1613 , who 
regard this isle as a kind of barrier of the spice trade. 
Timor is nearly 200 miles in length by 60 in breadth ; and 
the inhabitants are esteemed the bravest in the Oriental 
Archipelago. 


II. BORNEO. 


THIS island is reputed the largest in the world, except 
New Holland ; as it is about 900 miles in length, by 600 at 
its greatest breadth. 

The interior parts of the great island of Borneo are little 
known, though a considerable river Rows from the centre 
of the country almost due south, forming the harbour of 
Bender Massin. Lofty mountains are said to rise in the 
middle of the island: many are volcanic, and often occasion 
tremendous earthquakes. The houses are often built oil 
posts fixed in rails, which are moored to the shore, and 
may be moved from place to place according to the conve¬ 
nience of the inhabitants. The natives in the interior are 
blacks, with longhair, of a middle stature, feeble, and in- 


S68 


ASIATIC ISLES. 


active ; but their features are superior to those of ne¬ 
groes. Pepper abounds in the interior country, with the 
gum called the dragon’s blood, camphor, and sandal wood. 
Edible birds’ nests are abundant. Gold is found in the in¬ 
terior country; where there are also said to be diamonds, 
but inferior to those of Golconda. The Ourang Qutang 
abounds. The natives are called Biajos, but their language 
has not been explained ; they are said to offer sacrifices of 
sweet scented wood to one supreme beneficent deity ; and 
the sentiments of piety, or in other words, of delightful 
gratitude, are accompanied by laudable morals. The 
chiefs extract one or two of the fore teeth, substituting 
others of gold; and strings of the teeth of tigers, a real 
badge of knighthood, or courage, are worn round the neck. 
The town called Borneo on the N. W. consists of about 
three thousand houses, floating as above described : it was 
greatly frequented by the Chinese, who probably continue 
to be the chief traders to Borneo, 

This large island is surrounded with many small isles 
which, from their relation to this comparative continent, 
may be termed Bornean islands, but are of small account. 

III. THE MANILLAS, OR PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

THIS large group was discovered by Magalhaens in 
1521, who called them the archipelago of St. Lazarus ; but 
they were afterwards styled the Philippines, in honour of 
Philip II. of Spain. 

Luzon is the largest and most important of these isles, 
being more than seven degrees, or near 500 B. miles in 
length, by about 100 of medial breadth. It is pervaded in 
its length by a chain of high mountains towards the east. 
Gold, copper, and iron are among the certain products ; and 
the soil is reported to be uncommonly fruitful. The na¬ 
tives, who are of a mild character, seem of Malay origin. 
They are tall and well made, wearing only a kind of shirts 
with loose drawers, but the dress of the women is chiefly a 
large mantle, and their black and beautiful hair sometimes 
reaches the ground, the complexion being a deep tawny. 
The houses are of bamboo covered with palm leaves, raised 
on pillars to the height of eight or ten feet. The chief food 


ASIATIC ISLES. 


369 


is rice and salt fish. The cotton is of peculiar beauty ; and 
the sugar cane and cocoa trees are objects of particular cul¬ 
ture. The dty of Manilla is well built and fortified, but a 
third part is occupied by convents : the number of Christian 
inhabitants is computed at 12,000. Between this city and 
Acapulco, nearly in the same parallel, on the W. of Mexi¬ 
co, was conducted a celebrated commerce. The Manilla 
ships, or galleons, were formerly of great size, but latterly 
smaller vessels have been used. The city of Manilla was 
taken by the English in 1762. The Chinese were here nu¬ 
merous till the beginning of the seventeenth century, when 
the Spaniards committed a terrible massacre of that indus¬ 
trious people. In 1769 it is said that they were again expell¬ 
ed from all these isles, by the bigotry of the governor; 
since which time there has been a great decline in industry 
and produce. 

Next in size is Mindanao, a beautiful and fertile island, 
the chief Spanish sttlement being at Sambuang in the 
S. W. In the south there is a volcano of constant erup¬ 
tion, which serves as a sea mark. 

The other chief Philippines are Pulawain, Mindoro, 
Pani, Buglas, or isle of Negroes, Zebu, Leyt, orLeita, and 
Samar. The other little islands might be counted by hun¬ 
dreds. In general this grand and extensive group pre¬ 
sents many volcanic appearances ; such as lava, volcanic 
glass, sulphur, and hot springs. 


IV. THE CELEBEZIAN ISLES. 

CELEBEZ is an isle of great and irregular length, 
more than 600 B. miles, but the breadth is commonly not 
above 60 B.. miles. This island is lofty and mountainous, 
especially towards the centre, and there are several active 
volcanoes. The Portuguese obtained a settlement near Ma¬ 
cassar, but were expelled by the Dutch in 1660. The natives, 
commonly called Macassars, are free-booters, and attack 
vessels with surprising desperation, and often with lances, or 
arrows poisoned with the juice of the notorious tree called 
upas. Their houses are raised on pillars, as usual, on account 
of the rainy season, or W. monsoon, from November till 
March. The Celebezian group might aptly be termed the 
Isles of Poison, being full of poisonous trees and plants. 


570 


ASIATIC ISLES. 


Nature has thus contrasted the salutary productions of the 
spice islands with the most pernicious proofs of her power. 

Around Celebez are many small isles ; most of them 
inhabited and governed by separate chieftains. 


V. THE SPICE ISLANDS, INCLUDING THE MOLUCCAS. 

THE chief spice islands are Gilolo, Ceram, and Bou- 
RO, with Mortay, Oubi, Mysol, Bouro, that of Am- 
eoyna, and the group of Banda, with such small isles as 
approximate nearer to these than to the Celebezian group, 
or Sumatran chain, all languishing under the tyranny of 
jealous and phlegmatic Dutchmen. 

Gilolo is of considerable extent ; the length is about 
230 B. miles ; the breadth of each limb seldom above 40. 
1 he shores are low : the interior rises to high peaks. One 
of the chief towns is Tatany, situated on a point or small 
promontory ot the eastern limb, faced with precipices, so 
as to be only accessible by ladders. This isle abounds with 
oxen, buffaloes, goats, deer, and wild hogs ; but the sheep 
are few. The bread fruit is frequent in Gilolo, with the 
sago tree. 

Ceram is another island of considerable size, being 
about 190 B. miles in length by 40 in breadth. It produces 
clove trees ; as well as large forests of the sago tree, which 
forms a considerable article of export. 

Bouro is about 90 miles in length, by 50 in breadth. 
This isle was nominally subject to the king of Ternat; but 
in 1660 the Dutch built a fort, and, though they burned 
the exterior woods, seem to have improved the industry 
of the inhabitants. The civet weasel is found here, and the 
curious hog called babiroussa. 

Of Mortay, Mysol, and Oubi, little is known. Mor¬ 
tay is a beautiful isle, but thinly inhabited, though full of 
sago trees, which are cut by the people of Gilolo ; and is 
subject to the king of Ternat. Mysol, the most eastern of 
this group, is of a triangular shape, with a bold shore. The 
villages are built in the water upon posts ; and there are 
picturesque forests visited by the birds of paradise, which 
seem to migrate from Papua, and are caught in consider¬ 
able numbers. Oubi abounds in cloves, and the Dutch 
have a small fort on the west side. 


ASIATIC ISLES. 


371 


But besides these islands there is a group still remaining 
to be described. The Moluccas, strictly so called, in the 
western extremity ; and Amboyna and Banda in the south. 
The little or proper Moluccas, areThiRNAT, Tidork, Mo- 
tir, Marian, and Batchian. In 1510 they were visited 
by Portuguese navigators from the west; and afterwards 
by the Spaniards, conducted by Magalhaens, a Portuguese 
commodore. These two great maritime nations afterwards 
contested this precious property ; but the Moluccas were 
finally resigned to the Portuguese, who were supplanted 
by the Dutch about the year 1607. The English also claim¬ 
ing this opulent commerce, a treaty was signed in 1619, 
declaring the Moluccas, Amboyna, and Banda, common to 
both ; the English to have one third of the produce, and the 
Dutch two thirds ; each contributing a similar proportion 
to defend the islands from invaders. But in the short course 
of three years the Dutch, actuated by their insatiable avar¬ 
ice, determined by the most diabolical means, to free them¬ 
selves from all competitors. They forged a plot of the 
English against their lives and liberties, and put them to 
death by the most exquisite tortures that hell itself could 
invent. 

The clove is said to have abounded particularly in Ma- 
kian, but the growth was afterwards confined by the Dutch 
to Amboyna. The nutmeg specially flourished in the group 
of Banda. The largest of the little Moluccas isBATCHiAN, 
being governed by a sultan, who has a pension from the 
Dutch, either for the destruction or supply of nutmegs, but 
is otherwise little subservient. Batchian rises into woody 
hills ; and on the shores there are prodigious rocks of coral, 
of infinite variety and beauty. Marian is a small isle at a 
greater interval, to the N. of Batchian, and rises like a high 
conic mountain from the sea. This was regarded as the 
chief Dutch settlement before Amboyna became the me¬ 
tropolis of Moluccas. Next is Motir, formerly the seat 
of Venus and voluptuousness. The most distinguished of 
the proper Moluccas are Tidore andTERNAr. While 
Portugal was united to Spain the Dutch were defeated near 
Tidore in 1610 by the Spanish admiral Sylva ; but by the 
assistance of the king of Ternat the Batavians seized the 
fort. 

Ter mat is the most northern and most important of the 
Moluccas, though it scarcely exceeds twenty-four miles in 




ASIATIC ISLES. 


372 

circumference. In 1638 the Batavians formed an alliance 
with the king of Ternat and the lesser princes, which has 
been repeatedly renewed ; but garrisons are established to 
enforce the observance, and the sultans of Ternat and Ti- 
dore are watched with great attention. Ternat consists 
chiefly of high land, abounding with streams, which burst 
from the cloudy peaks. The chief quadrupeds, are goats, 
deer, and hogs, and the birds are of distinguished beauty, 
particularly the king-fisher, clotliedin scarlet and mazareen 
blue, called by the natives the Goddess. In Ternat the 
Boa-serpent is sometimes found, of the length of thirty 
feet; and by its power of suction and constriction is report¬ 
ed sometimes to swallow even small deer. 

Equally distinguished are the most southern spice islands 
of Amboyna and Banda, cloves being now restricted, so 
far as Dutch avarice could effect, to Amboyna, and nutmegs 
to Banda. Amboyna was discovered by the Portuguese about 
1515, but was not seized till 15 64 ; and was conquered by 
the Dutch about 1607. This celebrated isle is about 60 B. 
miles in length from N. to S. and on the west side there is 
a large bay, which divides it into two limbs or peninsulas. 
On the eastern side is another bay, with a bad harbour, 
where the Portuguese erected their-ctffef fortress V ictoria. 
The town of Amboyna, the capital of the isle, stands near 
the S. W. extremity, and is neatly built; the houses, on ac¬ 
count of the frequent earthquakes, seldom exceed one 
floor. The face of this island is beautiful, woody mountains 
and verdant vales being interspersed with hamlets, and en¬ 
riched by cultivation. The clove tree grows to the height 
of about forty or fifty feet, with spreading branches and 
long pointed leaves. In deep sheltered vales some trees 
will produce thirty pounds weight annually, the chief crop 
being from November to February. The soil is mostly a 
reddish clay, but in the vales blackish and sandy. When 
Amboyna was recently seized by the English, it was found, 
with its dependencies, to contain 45/252 souls, of which 
17,8 13 were Protestants, the rest Mahometans, except a 
few Chinese and savages. The Dutch are tolerably po¬ 
lished, this being the next settlement to Batavia in wealth 
and consequence The sugar and coffee are excellent, 
and among many delicious fruits is the mangosteen of 
Hindostan. 


ASIATIC ISLES. 


373 


Banda, or Lantor, is the chief isle of a group which 
comprises six or seven others ; it does not exceed eight B. 
miles in length, W. to E. and the greatest breadth at its 
eastern extremity may be five miles. The nutmeg tree 
is the principal object of cultivation in these isles. When 
the English seized these isles in 1796, the annual produce 
was about 163,000 pounds of nutmegs, and 46,000 pounds 
of mace. The nutmeg tree grows to the size of a pear 
tree, the leaves resembling those of the laurel, and bears 
fruit from the age of ten to one hundred years. The nut¬ 
meg, when ripe on the tree, has both a very curious and 
beautiful appearance : it is about the size of an apricot, and 
nearly of a similar colour, with the same kind of hollow 
mark all round it; in shape it is somewhat like a pear : 
when perfectly ripe the rind over the mark opens, and dis¬ 
covers the mace, of a deep red, growing over and covering* 
in part the thin shell of the nutmeg, which is black. 


AUSTRALASIA. 


UNDER THIS DENOMINATION ARE COMPRISED, 

1. THE central and chief land of New Holland, with any 
isles which may be discovered in the adjacent Indian ocean, 
twenty degrees to the W. and between twenty and thirty 
degrees to the E. including particularly all the large islands 
that follow : 

2. Papua, or New Guinea. 

3. New Britain and New Ireland, with the Solomon Isles. 

4. New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides. 

5. New Zealand. 

6. The large island called Van Diemen’s Land, recently 
discovered to be separated from New Holland by a strait, 
or rather channel, called Bass’s strait. 

I i 




374 


AUSTRALASIA. 


I. NEW HOLLAND. 


SOME suppose that this extensive region, when more 
thoroughly investigated, will be found to consist of two, 
three, or more vast islands, intersected by narrow seas. 
However this be, the most recent and authentic charts still 
indicate New Holland as a country fully entitled to the ap¬ 
pellation of a continent. The length from E. to W. is 
about 43 degrees of longitude, in the medial latitude of 25°, 
that is about 2340 g. miles. The breadth from N. to S. 
extends from 11 * to 39°, being 28 degrees, 1680 g. miles, 
which is one quarter less than Europe, the smallest of the 
ancient continents. 

The first civilized people to whom it was disclosed were 
the Spaniards or Portuguese, the earliest European naviga¬ 
tors in this portion of the globe. 

The Portuguese being supplanted by the Dutch, the 
latter are regarded by president Des Drosses as the chief 
discoverers of Australasia, between the year 1616 and 
1644. The first discovery he dates in the month of Octo¬ 
ber, 1616, when the western extremity was explored by 
Hartog. 

In 1642 that celebrated navigator Tasman, leaving Ba¬ 
tavia with two ships, performed almost a circuit ot Austra¬ 
lasia, and discovered the southern land of Van Diemen , with 
New Zealand, and some isles of less consequence. 

The eastern coast having been carefully examined by 
York, and justly appearing of great importance, was for¬ 
mally taken possession of in the name of the king of Great 
Britain, 1770 ; and was selected by government as a proper 
place of transportation for criminals sentenced to that pu¬ 
nishment by the laws of their country. The first ship sailed 
from Spithead on the 30th January, 1787, and arrived on 
the 20th of the same month in the following year. Botany 
Bay being found to be a station of inferior advantages to 
what were expected, port Jackson was preferred, on the 
south side of which, at a spot called Sidney Cove, the co¬ 
lony was finally settled. Port Jackson is one of the noblest 
harbours in the world, extending about fourteen miles in 
length wiih numerous creeks or coves. 

O • 


AUSTRALASIA. 


375 


The most recent accounts seem to authenticate the 
flourishing state of the settlement. The mode of cultiva¬ 
tion has been improved, coal and rock salt discovered ; and 
there is room to expect that this wide territory will not be 
found deficient in the usual riches of nature. 

Inhabitants. From the accounts of various na¬ 
vigators, there is room to infer that this extensive tract is 
peopled by three or four races of men, those observed in 
the S. W. being described as different from those in the N. 
and both from those in the E. with whom alone we are in¬ 
timately acquainted. These are perhaps in the most early 
stage of society which has yet been discovered in any part 
of the globe. They are merely divided into families, the 
senior being styled Be-ana, or Father. One tribe numer¬ 
ous and muscular, has the singular prerogative of exacting 
a tooth from young men of other families, the sole token 
of government or subordination. No religion whatever 
is known, though they have a faint idea of a future exist¬ 
ence, and think their people return to the clouds, whence 
they originally fell. They are of a low stature, and ill made; 
the arms, legs, and thighs, being remarkably thin. Fish 
is the only food of those on the coast, while a few in the 
woods subsist on such animals as they can catch, and climb 
trees ior honey, nyhig gtfuitreis, and opossums. The fea¬ 
tures of the women are not unpleasant, though approaching 
to the negro. The black bushy beards of the men, and the 
bone or reed which they thrust through the cartilage of the 
nose, gives them a disgusting appearance; which is not 
improved by the practice of rubbing fish oil into their 
skins, as a protection from the air and moskitos, so that in 
hot weather the stench is intolerable. They colour their 
faces with white or red clay. The women are marked by 
the loss of the two first joints of the little finger of the left 
hand, as they were supposed to be in the way when they 
coiled their fishing lines. Some are nearly as black as 
African negroes, while others exhibit a copper colour, but 
the hair is long, not woolly like the African. Their noses 
are flat, nostrils wide, sunk eyes, thick brows and lips, with 
a mouth of prodigious width, but the teeth white and even. 
“• Many had very prominent jaws ; and there was one man, 
who, but for the gift of speech, might very well have pas¬ 
sed for an ourang-outang.” 


575 


AUSTRALASIA. 


The huts are constructed of the bark of trees, in the 
form of an oven, the fire being at the entrance. Here they 
sleep promiscuously. Fish are killed with a kind of prong, 
or taken by the women, with lines of bark and hooks made 
of the mother of pearl oyster. The fish are often broiled 
on a fire laid on sand in the canoe. Beasts are taken in a 
kind of toils. Caterpillars and worms are likewise articles 
of food. The canoes are made of bark extended on a tim¬ 
ber frame. 

These poor savages are the abject slaves of superstition, 
believing in magic and witchcraft and ghosts ; they have al¬ 
so spells against thunder and lightning, and pretend to fore- 
%el events by the meteors called falling stars. Young peo¬ 
ple are buried, but those who have passed the middle age 
are burnt ; a rude tumulus being erected by way of tomb. 

Language. The language is reported to be grate¬ 
ful to the ear, expressive and sonorous, having no analogy 
with any other known language. 

Climate and Seasons. From its situation on the 
southern side of the equator, the seasons are like those of 
the southern part of Africa and America, the reverse of 
those in Europe ; the summer corresponding with our win¬ 
ter, and the spring with autumn. Mr. Collins found the 
weather in December very hot, but the climate was allow¬ 
ed to be fine and salubrious. The rains were heavy, ap¬ 
pearing to fall chiefly about the full and change of the 
moon ; and at intervals there were storms of thunder and 
lightning. 

The general aspect of the country seems hilly, but 
not mountainous, partly covered with tall trees clear from 
underwood ; on the shores large swamps also occur. The 
soil around Botany Bay is black and fat, and fertile of plants. 
Considerable quantities of maize and wheat have been rais¬ 
ed, particularly on Norfolk Island. 

Rivers, Lakes, and Mountains. Concerning 
the l ivers, lakes and mountains of New Flolland, there can 
be but little information. 

An itials. This wide country presents a peculia¬ 
rity in the animals, being mostly of the opossum kind, and 
leaping habitually on the hind legs : the chief in size is the 
Kangooroo. The native dogs are of the chacal kind, and 
never bark. Among the few other quadrupeds yet describ¬ 
ed are weazels and ant-eaters, with that singular animal the 


AUSTRALASIA. 


377 


duck-billed platypus, the jaws being elongated into the 
complete bill of a bird. Among the birds are the brown 
eagle, several falcons, and many elegant parrots ; there are 
also bustards and partridges, with some pigeons. Anew 
kind of cassowary must not be omitted, said to be seven 
feet in length : it is not uncommon, and the flesh tastes like 
beef. Among the aquatic birds are the heron, and gigantic 
pelicans. There are also peculiar ducks and geese ; and 
the black swan is a rare progeny of the new continent. 


If. PAPUA, OR NEW GUINEA. 


THIS country is one of the most interesting in Austra¬ 
lasia, as partaking of the opulence of the Moluccas, and 
their singular varieties of plants and animals. It was first 
discovered by Saavedra, a Spanish Captain, in 1528, who 
had sailed from Mexico by the command of Cortez, to ex¬ 
plore the Spice islands. This extensive country is still far 
from being completely investigated, but is conceived to be 
a vast island of more than 1200 miles in length, by a medial 
breadth of perhaps 300. 

Original Population. On this extensive territo¬ 
ry, in a situation so highly favoured by nature, and pro¬ 
bably enriched with the choicest productions, there is no 
European settlement. T. he inhabitants of the northern 
part are called Papous, whence the name of the country. 
They are black, and even said to have the woolly hair of 
negroes. In the interior is a race called Haraforas, who 
live in trees, which they ascend by a notched pole, drawing it 
after them to prevent surprise. The appearance of the 
Papuans and their habitations is grotesque, the latter being 
built on stages in the water ; in which they resemble the 
Borneans and other nations in tne Asiatic isles. T he wo* 
seem the most industrious in making mats, and pots 
of clay which they afterwards burn with dry grass or brush 
wood. 

u The aspect of these people is frightful and hideous ; 
the men are stout in body, their skin of a shining black, 
rough and often disfigured with marks like those occasion¬ 
ed by the leprosy ; their eyes are very large, their noses 
flat, mouth from ear to ear, their lips amazingly thick, espe- 

I i 2 


AUSTRALASIA. 


O' sy tV 

a / a 

daily the upper lip; their hair woolly, either a shining 
black or fiery red. The men by way of ornament hang 
round their necks the tusks of boars. The heads of the 
women are of less size than those of the men, and in their 
left ear they wear small brass rings.” 

The chief commerce is with the Chinese, from whom 
they purchase their instruments and utensils. Their re¬ 
turns are ambergris, tortoise-shell, small pearls, birds of 
paradise, and other birds, which the Papuans dry with 
great skill. Some slaves are also exported, probably cap¬ 
tives taken in intestine wars. 

The natural history of this country is little known, but 
the zoology is striking and romantic. Papua is the chosen 
residence of the splendid and singular birds of paradise, of 
which ten or twelve sorts are enumerated by Mr. Pennant. 
They alight on the highest trees, seeming to feed on ber¬ 
ries, and according to some on nutmegs and butterflies : 
and are either shot with blunt arrows, or caught with bird¬ 
lime or nooses. The bowels and breast bone being extract¬ 
ed, they are dried with smoke and sulphur, sold for nails or 
bits of iron, and exported to Banda. Papua also boasts of 
elegant parrots ; while the crowned or gigantic pigeon al¬ 
most equals a turkey in size. 

Some of the small adjacent islands are better known than 
the main land of Papua; as Waijoo, or W adjoo, which is an 
isle of considerable size, and said to contain 100,000 inha¬ 
bitants. And Salwatti another populous island, governed 
by a raja. The people of these two large islands resemble 
those of the main land of Papua, being a singular race of 
horrible appearance, and great ferocity. They live on fish, 
or turtle, and sago, that tree abounding in Papua, but the 
substance is chiefly prepared by the people of Waijoo. 


HI, NEW BRITAIN, AND NEW IRELAND, WITH THE 

SOLOMON ISLES. 


NEW BRITAIN was first explored and named by Dam- 
pier in 1700. In 1767 Captain Carteret passed through a 
channel between New Britain and New Ireland. In these 
parts the nutmeg tree is found abundant, being perhaps the 
most remote region towards the east, of that valuable plant. 


AUSTRALASIA. 


379 


Dampier visited a bay in New Britain, called Port Mon¬ 
tague, and found the land mountainous and woody, but in¬ 
terspersed with fertile vales and beautiful streams. The 
country seemed very populous. The chief products seem¬ 
ed to be cocoa nuts, but there were yams, and other roots, 
particularly ginger. 

Inhabitants. Captain Carteret found the natives of 
New Ireland very hostile, having lances headed with flint. 
Their faces were streaked with white, and their hair dab¬ 
bed with powder of the same colour. They are black, and 
said to be woolly headed, but without the thick lips or flat 
nose of the negro. Some of the canoes of New Ireland 
were ninety feet in length, formed out of a single tree. 

The Solomon Islands discovered by Mendana, in 1575, 
are a large group, extending from Lord Anson’s isle in the 
N. W. to the isle called Egmont by Carteret in the S. E. 
Some of the natives were of a copper colour, others of a 
deep black, with a wrapper of linen around the waist, while 
the neck was ornamented with little beads of gold. The 
canoes were small, two being commonly fastened together. 
In baskets of palm leaves they carry a kind of bread made 
of roots. 


IV. NEW CALEDONIA, AND THE NEW HEBUDES, 


THESE regions "were discovered by Captain Cook in 
1774. 

New Caledonia is a large island, and the natives are said 
to be a muscular race, of a deep brown complexion, re¬ 
sembling those of New Zealand. 

The women are more chaste than in the other isles of the 
Pacific. The houses are neat, some having carved door 
posts, and they rise in the form of a bee hive, warm but 
full of smoke. The dress is a slight wrapper; and the 
hair which is frizzled, not woolly, is ornamented with a 
comb, while the beard is worn short. They subsist on roo ts 
and fish, the country being very barren and rocky. 

In Tanna, one of the New Hebrides, there is a remark¬ 
able volcano, with some hot springs. Here are found plan¬ 
tains, sugar canes, yams, and several kinds of fruit trees. 


380 


AUSTRALASIA. 


V. NEW ZEALAND. 

THIS country was first discovered by Tasman in 1642, 
but he did not land. 

Our great navigator Cook explored these regions in 1770, 
and discovered a strait which divides the country into two 
large islands. One is not less than 600 B. miles in length, 
by about 150 in medial breadth ; and the other is little in¬ 
ferior in size. 

One of these islands appears to be far more fertile than 
the other ; but both enjoy a temperate climate, similar to 
that of France. The natives were observed to be of a brown 
complexion, little deeper than the Spanish, and some are 
even fair. They equal the tallest Europeans in stature ; 
and their features are commonly regular and pleasing. It 
is singular to observe such a diversity between them and 
the natives of New Holland, when theory would expect to 
find them the same race of men. So far as present disco¬ 
veries extend, the natives of New Holland and Papua seem 
to display an African origin ; while most of the other 
islands in the Pacific appear to have been peopled from 
Asia. 

Manners and Customs. The New Zealanders 
inter their dead ; they also believe that the third day after 
the interment the heart separates itself from the corpse^ 
and is carried to the clouds by an attendant spirit. 

Suicide is very common among the New Zealanders, 
and this they often commit by hanging themselves on the 
slightest occasions ; thus a woman who has been beaten by 
her husband will perhaps hang herself immediately. 

They have no other division of time than the revolution 
of the moon, until the number amounts to one hundred, 
which they term “ Ta-iee E-tow,” that is one Etow, or 
hundred moons ; and it is thus they count their age, and 
calculate all other events. 

The natives have no morai, or place of worship ; but the 
priests alone address the gods for prosperity. 

The 11 ax of New Zealand has excited particular atten¬ 
tion, being of a beautiful silky appearance, and the plant 
remarkably tall. The culture has been attempted both in 
France and England without success ; perhaps from some 


AUSTRALASIA. 


381 


remarkable difference in soil, or the entire reversion of sea¬ 
sons. It is not a little remarkable, that in this extensive 
land no quadruped was observed, except a few rats, and a 
fox dog, which is a domestic animal with the natives. 

The general dress is an oblong garment made by knot¬ 
ting the silky flax ; and the ears are ornamented with bits 
of jad or beads, the face being often besmeared with a red 
paint. The habitations are far superior to those in New 
Holland ; and the boats are well built of planks raised upon 
each other, and fastened with strong withes. Some are fifty 
feet long and sc broad as to be able to sail without an out¬ 
rigger, but the smaller soft commonly have one, and they 
often fasten two together by rafters. 1 he large canoes will 
carry thirty men or more ; and have often a head ingeni¬ 
ously carved. Their weapons are spears and javelins, with 
the pa-too, a kind of club or rude battle-axe ; and in combat 
they distort their features like demons. The yet warm 
bodies of their enemies are cut in pieces, broiled, and de¬ 
voured with peculiar satisfaction. 


VI. VAN DIKMAN’s LAND. 


THIS is the last great division yet discovered of the wide 
expanse of Australasia. The name was imposed by that 
eminent Dutch navigator Tasman. It has been recently 
discoverd to be an island, in the form of an oblong square, 
about 160 B. miles in length, by half that breadth, being 
divided from New Holland by a strait, more than thirty 
leagues wide. The natives were entirely naked ; of a com¬ 
mon stature, but rather slender, the skin being black, and 
the hair as woolly as that of any native of Guinea, but their 
lineaments were more pleasing than those of African ne¬ 
groes. The hair and beards, and of some the faces, were 
smeared with red ointment. The hovels resemble those 
of New Holland; but sometimes large trees are hollowed 
out by fire to the height of six or seven feet, so as to form 
a rude habitation. 


382 


POLYNESIA. 


POLYNESIA. 


THE following arc the chief subdivisions comprised un- 
der the denomination of Polynesia. 

1. The Pelew Isles. 

2. The Ladrones, a chain extending in a northerly di¬ 
rection, the small islands in the Pacific seeming to be mostly 
the summits of ranges or groups of mountains. 

3. The Carolines, a long range from E. to W. so as per¬ 
haps, in strictness, to include the Pelews. 

4. The Sandwich Isles. 

5. The Marquesas. 

6. The Society Isles, so named in honour of the Royal 
Society. 

7. The Friendly Isles. 

There are besides, many isles scattered in different di¬ 
rections, which it would be difficult to connect with any 
group, and indeed none of them, yet discovered, appears to 
be of any consequence. 


I. THE PELEW ISLES. 


THIS group recently attracted considerable attention, 
from an ingenious and pleasing account of them, drawn up 
by Mr. Keate, from the papers of captain Wilson, who 
suffered shipwreck on these islands in 1783. The narrative 
is doubtless heightened, but the people appear to be a most 
gentle and amiable race, the gay and innocent children of 
nature. It is a peculiarity, in the oriental archipelago, that 
the small isles are the chief seats of comparative civiliza¬ 
tion, by the concentration of society. Where there is no 
room for secession, the society becomes as it were one fa¬ 
mily. 

The Pelewans area stout well made people rather above 
the middle stature. Their complexions are of a far deeper 
colour than what is understood by the copper hue, but not 
black, and their hair is long and flowing. The men are en- 


POLYNESIA. 


383 


tirely naked, while the women only wear two little aprons, 
or rather fringes, made of the husk of the cocoa nut. Both 
sexes are tatooed, and the teeth are dyed black. Polygamy 
is allowed, and the dead are interred. There seems no ap¬ 
pearance of religion of any kind, though they have an idea 
that the soul survives the body. 

The government is in the hands of a king, under whom 
there are rufiaks , or chiefs, who also constitute a kind of 
nobles. The property of all the land is supposed to be 
vested in the sovereign ; while that of the people is only 
personal, as a canoe, weapons, or rude articles of furniture. 
Our domestic poultry are here wild in the woods, and were 
neglected by the natives, till taught by the English that 
they were proper for food. Their chief nourishment ap¬ 
pears to be fish ; but they make a kind of sweetmeat from 
the sugar-cane, which seems indigenous. The chief drink 
is the milk of the cocoa nut. They commonly rise at day¬ 
light, and immediately go to bathe in fresh water. Their 
houses are raised on large stones, about three feet from the 
ground, being constructed of planks and bamboos, and the 
fire-place in the middle, secured with hard rubbish. There 
are large mansions for public meetings. In general their 
articles resemble those of Otaheite, and other isles in t’ e 
South Sea. The weapons are spears, darts, and slings : 
and the canoes are formed of the trunk of a tree, neatly or¬ 
namented. 

The ebony tree is found in the forests, and the bread 
fruit and cocoa tree seem to abound, with sugar-canes and 
bamboos. No kind of grain was seen, nor any quadrupeds, 
except some rats in the woods, and three or four cats in 
the houses. 


II. THE LADRONES. 

THIS appellation implies the Isles of Robbers, and was 
given by that distinguished navigator Magalhaens, who 
first discovered these islands in 15*2 1. 

In colour, speech, manners, and government, they consi¬ 
derably resemble the people of the Philippines, before the 
Spanish conquest. TlieSe isles were then very populous. 







384 


POLYNESIA. 


Guam? t;h e largest, is forty leagues of circuit, having thir¬ 
ty thousand inhabitants. 

The Ladrones are computed to be twelve or fourteen in 
number ; but not above three or four are inhabited. Their 
vessels, called flying proas, have been esteemed singular 
specimens of naval architecture. 

In these seas is the stupendous rock called Lot’s Wife, 
rising in the form of a pyramid, and thus described by Mr. 
Meares in his voyage : i: The latitude of this rock was 
29® 5Q' north, the longitude 142° 23' east of Greenwich. 
The waves broke against its rugged front, with a fury pro¬ 
portioned to the immense distance they had to roll before 
they were interrupted by it. It rose almost perpendicular 
to the height of near three hundred and fifty feet. A small 
black rock appeared just above the water, at about forty or 
fifty yards from the western edge. There was a cavern on 
its south-eastern side, into which the waters rolled with an 
awful and tremendous noise. In regarding this stupendous 
rock, which stood alone in an immense ocean, we could 
not but consider it as an object which had been able to resist 
one of those great convulsions of nature that change the 
very form of those parts of the globe which they are per¬ 
mitted to desolate.” 


III. THE CAROLINES. 

THIS is the largest group, or rather the most extensive 
range of islands in the Pacific ocean. This chain appears 
to have been first discovered by the Spaniards in 1686, and 
was named from the Spanish monarch Charles II. They 
are about thirty in number, and very populous, except 
three which were uninhabited. 1 he natives resemble 
those of the Philippines, and chiefly live upon fish and co¬ 
coa nuts. According to the letters of the Jesuits, each isle 
was subject to its chief, but all respected a monarch, who 
resided at Lamurec. 

They believe in certain celestial spirits, and think they 
descend to bathe in a sacred lake in Fallalo, but there are 
neither temples nor idols, nor any appearance of worship. 
The dead are sometimes thrown into the sea, and at others 
interred, the grave being surrounded with a stone wall. It 


POLYNESIA. 


285 


is said that those of Yap worship a kind of crocodile, and 
have their magicians. Polygamy is allowed, and the Ta- 
mul or chief of the large isle of Hogoleu had nine wives. 
Criminals are banished from one isle to another. 

They do not appear to have any instruments of music, 
but their dances are accompanied with songs. Even in 
this distant quarter of the globe negro slaves are not un¬ 
known : and in one or two of the islands the breed is said 
to be mingled, twenty-nine Spaniards having been left on 
one of these islands, who are supposed to have married and 
settled. 


IV. THE SANDWICH ISLES. 


THESE islands appear to have been first discovered by 
the great navigator Cook, and the island O whyhee the 
largest in the group, being about 2 80 B miles in circum¬ 
ference, is unfortunately distinguished as the place where 
this *bie commander was slain by the natives in February, 
1779. 

The natives are rather of a darker complexion than 
those of Otaheite, but the features are pleasing. The hair 
is sometimes long, sometimes curled, as among Europe¬ 
ans : but the nose is always spread at the point, perhaps 
owing to the mode of salutation, in which they press their 
noses together. Captain King represents them as a mild 
and affectionate people, free from the Otaheitan levity, and 
the proud gravity of those of the Friendly Isles. This in¬ 
genious people has even made some progress in agricul¬ 
ture and manufactures : yet they still sacrifice human vic¬ 
tims, but do not eat them like the people of New Zealand, 
at least so far as information could be obtained. The beard 
is generally worn ; and among the ornaments of both sexes 
is a kind of fan to drive away Hies, made of the fibres of 
the cocoa nut, or of long feathers. They tatoo their bo¬ 
dies ; and among females even the tip of the tongue. The 
dress consists of a narrow piece of coarse cloth called the 
maro , prepared in the same manner as at Otaheite, which 
passes between the legs, and is fastened round the loins. In 
battle the men throw a kind of mats over their shoulders, 
and this armour is neatly manufactured. On solemn occa- 

k k 



356 


POLYNESIA. 


sions the chiefs wear dresses, artfully and beautifully form¬ 
ed of feathers. The women have only a slight wrapper, 
and the hair is cut short behind, but turned up from their 
forehead. The food consists chiefly of fish, to which are 
added yams, plantains, and sugar canes ; while people of 
rank feast on the wild boar, and sometimes the flesh of 
dogs. The government is in a sitpreme chief called Eree 
Taboo, whose funeral is accompanied by the sacrifice of two 
or more servants. The inferior chiefs are styled Erees ; 
and there is a second class of proprietors, and a third of 
labourers, all these ranks seeming to be hereditary. 

Climate, See. The climate appears to be more 
temperate than that of the West Indies ; and there is a re¬ 
gular land and sea breeze. 

The quadrupeds are few ; only hogs, dogs, and rats, be¬ 
ing discovered, and the kinds of birds are not numerous. 
These islands produce abundance of the bread fruit, and 
sugar canes of amazing size. 


V. THE MARQUESAS. 


THESE islands were discovered by the Spaniards, and 
in 1774 they were visited by captain Cook, and again by 
captain Wilson in 1797. 

The natives are said to surpass all other nations in svm- 
metry of shape, and regularity of features ; and were it not 
lor the practice of tatooing, the complexion would be only 
tawny, while the hair is of many colours, but none red. 
Some of the women are nearly as fair as Europeans. A 
long narrow piece of cloth was wrapt round the waist, the 
ends being tucked up between the thighs, while a broad 
piece of the cloth was thrown over their shoulder, reaching 
half way down the leg. 

The religious ceremonies resemble those of Otalieite ; 
and they have a Morai in each district, where the dead are 
buried under a pavement of large stones. Their deities 
are numerous, and the chief seems to have little power, 
custom alone being followed, instead of laws. Like most 
uncivilized nations, they have no regular meals, but eat 
five or six times a day, or oftener. The women seem 
more subjected to the men, than at Otalieite. The canoes 


POLYNESIA. 


387 


are made of wood, and the bark of a soft tree, being com¬ 
monly from sixteen to twenty feet in length, the prow 
carved in rude resemblance of a human face. 

No quadrupeds were discovered except hogs, but there 
are tame poultry, and the woods are filled with many 
beautiful birds. In one of these isles an English missiona¬ 
ry was left, in the benevolent intention of discouraging mu¬ 
tual slaughter, and human sacrifices. 

VI. THE SOCIETY ISLES. 

ALL the islands from longitude 1 60° west from Green¬ 
wich, to the eastern extremity of Polynesia, may be in¬ 
cluded under the general name of Society Islands, amount¬ 
ing to sixty or seventy. Of these, Otaheite is still by far 
the most considerable in size, being about 120 miles in cir¬ 
cumference. This Island appears to consist of two moun¬ 
tains, a larger and a smaller, joined by a narrow ridge; and 
the habitations are entirely confined to the level coasts ; as 
the natives croud to the shores for fish, their chief aliment. 

Near the central summit of the large mountain of Ota¬ 
heite, which in circumference, though not in height, re¬ 
sembles Etna, there is a curious lake of some extent: but 
no river appears, there being only rivulets, which spring 
from tne skirts, and pursue a brief course of two or three 
miles to the ocean. 

Inhabitants. The natural colour of the inhabi¬ 
tants is olive, inclining to copper. The women are only a 
shade or two deeper than an European brunette. They 
have fine black eyes, with white even teeth, soft skin, and 
elegant limbs ; while their hair is of a jetty black, per¬ 
fumed and ornamented with flowers. But with all these 
advantages they yield infinitely in beauty to the women of 
the Marquesas, the face has a broad masculine appearance. 

The chiefs are taller than the people, few being under 
S*ix feet; and as personal size and strength are the chief 
distinctions in early society, it is probable that their ances¬ 
tors were selected for these advantages, which have been 
continued by superior food and ease. The dress of both 
sexes is nearly the same, except that the men wear the 
twrOf a narrow piece of cloth wrapped round the waist, 




385 


POLYNESIA. 


and passing between the thighs ; an oblong piece, cut in 
the middle to admit the head, hangs down before and be¬ 
hind ; and another piece is wrapped round the middle, and 
a square mantle is thrown over all. Both sexes wear gar¬ 
lands of flowers and feathers ; and the women use a kind 
ef bonnet made of cocoa leaves. Parturition is easy ; and 
the infant can swim as soon as it can walk. 

Their voice and speech are soft and harmonious ; and 
their dialect is the Italian of the Pacific ocean. Their rude 
manufactures are truly wonderful, and evince the greatest 
ingenuity. Their dwellings are about eighteen feet in 
length, with a few articles of furniture, such as trays, bas¬ 
kets, mats, and a large chest. 

Religion. Their deities are numerous; each fa- 
«mily having its Tee, or guardian spirit, whom they worship 
at the Morai; but they have a great god, or gods of a supe¬ 
rior order, styled Fwhanow Po, or the progeny of night. 
These benevolent people cannot conceive a future punish¬ 
ment ; and regard the idea alone as the utmost effort of hu¬ 
man malignity. But they admit the immortality of the 
soul, and degrees of future eminence and happiness, pro- 
portionedto its virtue and piety. The Tahouras, or priests, 
are numerous, and have great power ; but all the chiefs 
officiate on certain occasions. The human victims are 
commonly criminals, and are killed during sleep ; a curi¬ 
ous instance of ferocious superstition, mingled with mild¬ 
ness of character. 

Animals. Tire chief animals are hogs, and they 
have also dogs and poultry. The bread fruit tree abounds j. 
and large plantations are made of cocoa trees and plantains. 

-• 1 soil of the low lands, and of the vales which intersect 
the ridge towards the ocean, is remarkably fertile, consist¬ 
ing of a rich blackish mould. In the north the harvest of 
bread fruit begins about November, and continues till the 
end of January : while in the southern part it often begins 
in January and continues till November. The lake above 
mentioned is said to be fathomless ; but its shores are well 
peopled by an industrious race. The chief harbour of 
Otaheite appears to be Matavai, on the north side of the 
island. 

1 he next island in regard to size is Ulitea : but this and 
the others of this group, are of far inferior dimensions to 
Otaheite, and hardly claim attention in a general description . 


POLYNESIA. 


3S9 


VII. THE FRIENDLY ISLES. 

THIS group extends chiefly from S. W. to N. E. includ¬ 
ing the Feejee Isles, those called the Isles ' Navigators, 
and several detached isles in a more northerly position. 
The name was imposed by captain Cook, in testimony of 
the disposition of the people ; but they had been discovered 
by Tasman so early as 1643. They are contrasted with 
those of Otaheite, as being of a more grave and regular 
behaviour ; and the power of the chiefs is more despotic. A 
greater security of property has also superinduced more 
ingenuity and industry : but in general the manners and 
customs approach so nearly, that a farther account might 
appear repetition. 


According to latest information Tongataboo the chief 
island is in an universal and surprising state of cultivation, 
the whole island consisting of inclosures, with reed fences 
about six feet high, intersected with innumerable roads.* 
The whole is such a picture of industry, as to form a le- 
proach to nations who call themselves civilized. The length 
of Tongataboo is only about sixteen miles, by about eight 
at its greatest breadth. The commodities are, as usual, 
hogs, bread fruit, cocoa nuts, and yams. 

Some missionaries were left here, who imparted some 
useful arts to the natives, but rats Were very destructive to 
the European plants. 

I 10 m the accounts of Ea Pefouse it would appear that 
the Islands of Navigators, are by far the most import¬ 
ant in this large group. At Muouna, one of the largest of 
these islands, captain De Langle, Lamanon the naturalist, 
and nine seamen were massacred by the inhabitants, the 
captain having unadvisedly given beads to a few of the 
chiefs while he neglected others. AtMaouna the frigates 
were surrounded with two hundred canoes, full of differ¬ 
ent kinds of provisions, fowls, hogs, pigeons, or fruit. The 
women were very pretty and licentious ; and the men of 
remarkable stature, strength and ferocity ; so that they 
despised the comparatively diminutive size of the French. 
The villages are delightfully situated in the midst of spon¬ 
taneous orchards, and the huts neatly erected, with rude 
colonades, and covered with leaves of the cocoa palm. 
Flogs, dogs and fowls abounded ; with the bread fruit tree! 
the cocoa nut, the banana, the guava, and the orange! 
Iron and cloth were despised, and beads alone acceptable! 

k k 2 



AMERICA. 


WE come now to treat of a continent of vast extent and 
fertility, and the last discovered quarter of the terraqueous 
globe. Of this extensive region the far greater part re¬ 
mains to be reclaimed from a state of nature, but promises 
to reward the hand of industry as liberally as either of the 
more ancient divisions; and to produce events as worthy of 
place in the annals of civilization and improvement. In 
treating this portion of geography, we will pursue nearly 
the same arrangement as in what has gone before. 

Extent. The southern limits of the American 
continent is clearly estimated from the strait of Magalhaens, 
or according to the French depravation of a Portuguese 
name, Magellan. But the northern extent is not ascertain¬ 
ed with equal precision. If Baffin’s bay really exist, the 
northern limit may extend to 80 degrees, or perhaps to the 
pole. But amidst the remaining uncertainty, it will be suf¬ 
ficient to estimate the length of America from the 72d 
degree of north latitude to the strait of Magalhaens, or the 
54th degree of south latitude ; a space of 126 degrees, or 
7560 geographical miles. 

In South America the greatest breadth is from cape 
Blanco in the west to that of St. Roque in the east; which, 
according to the best maps, is 48 degrees, or 2880 g. miles. 
But in the north the breadth may be computed from the 
promontory of Alaska to the most eastern point of Labra¬ 
dor, or even of Greenland, which would add more than a 
third part to the estimate. In British miles the length of 
America may be estimated at 8800, and supposing the 
breadth of North America 3840 g. miles, it will, in British 
tiiiles, be about 4400. 



AMERICA. 


391 


Discovery, See. Whether this quarter of the 
globe was first peopled from the north-west side of Europe, 
the north-east of Asia, or the shores of Africa that ap¬ 
proach nearest to the coast of Brazil, or from all three, will 
perhaps always remain the subject of conjecture. There 
is considerable plausibility in tracing the Aborigines of the 
New World to all of these sources, as there is a sufficient 
difference in the persons, language, and customs of the va¬ 
rious savage tribes, dispersed over this extensive continent, 
to warrant all of these suppositions. But from whatever 
quarter these people originally came, it is highly probable 
they were driven hither by stress of weather : for it is not 
to be supposed that men would willingly trust themselves 
out of sight of land, without any knowledge of the mari¬ 
ners’ compass, of which they must have been ignorant. 
It may be also very safely concluded, that from whatever 
quarter they departed, they never returned to narrate their 
adventures ; and, of course, all that has been written re¬ 
specting the knowledge the ancients had of America, is 
nothing more than fanciful theory, founded on very doubt¬ 
ful history. 

In the beginning of the fifteenth century Europe was 
sufficiently acquainted with the treasures of the east, its 
jewels, precious metals, silks and spices, to excite avidity ; 
and a strong spirit of enterprise. About this time the 
Portuguese visited the western coasts of Africa, and, sailing 
round its southern promontory, were the first European na¬ 
tion that opened a direct commercial intercourse with the 
east. Columbus, who had been many years in the Portu¬ 
guese service, conceived it possible to discover a shorter 
navigation to these wealthy regions than round the Cape of 
Good Hope. In the voyages he had made to Africa, and the 
western isles, he had gained such information as induced 
him to believe there was a western continent less distant, 
or rather that he could reach the East Indies by sailing a 
western course from Europe. 

With this persuasion strongly impressed on his mind, 
lie proposed to undertake a voyage of discovery. He first 
laid his plan before the state of Genoa, his native country, 
but there it was reprobated as visionary, and rejected : he 
then applied to John II. king of Portugal, a prince at that 
time distinguished for his commercial enterprize, but the 
intrigues of some influential men prevented his success. 


392 


AMERICA. 


Undiscouraged by disappointment, where he had most 
reason to hope for encouragement, he at last presented 
himself to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain ; where, after 
many years attendance and solicitation, he at last succeed¬ 
ed—owing to the superior genius and enterprise of the 
Queen—She resolved to patronize Columbus, and to fur¬ 
nish him with a small fleet for the purpose of his intended 
voyage : but so indifferent were the king and his courtiers 
to the important undertaking, that three ships (two of them 
very small) and ninety men were all the assistance he 
could obtain. With this small force, the cost of which 
was hardly 20,000 dollars, he left the port of Palos, in 
Andalusia, on the 3d of August, 1492, and after combating 
the winds and waves for ten weeks on an untried ocean, 
on the 12th of October, he discovered and landed on San 
Salvador, one of the Bahama islands. Proceeding south 
from San Salvador he discovered the large island of Cuba, 
and after that Hispaniola, or St. Domingo, on which last 
he built a fort, and formed the first European settlement 
in America. 

But as it is now universally admitted that Greenland 
foi'ms part of America, the discovery must of course be 
traced to the first visitation of Greenland by the Norwe¬ 
gians, in the year 982 ; which was followed in the year 
1003 by the discovery of Vinland, which seems to have 
been part of Labrador, or of Newfoundland. The colony 
in Vinland was soon destroyed by intestine divisions ; but 
that in Greenland continued to flourish tiil maritime in¬ 
tercourse was impeded by the encroaching shoals of arctic 
ice. Though the first European colony in Anftrica was 
thus lost, the Danes asserted their right by settlements on 
the western coast, called new Greenland, to distinguish it 
from the original colony on the eastern shores, or what is 
called Old Greenland. 

Greenland continued to be well known ; and, as many 
English vessels sailed to Iceland in the fourteenth and fif¬ 
teenth centuries, it is probable that this part of America 
was not wholly unvisited by them. 

The chief epochs of American discovery of course are : 

A. D. 982. Greenland discovered by the Norwegians, 
who planted a colony. 

1003. \ inland, that is a part of Labrador or Newfound¬ 
land, visited by the Norwegians, and a small colony left, 
which, however, soon perished. 


AMERICA. 


393 


After this there seems a long pause, for no farther dis¬ 
covery in America has hitherto been traced, by the utmost 
exertion of learned research till the time of Colon. 

1492. Colon sails from Spain, in quest of the new world, 
on Friday the 3d day of August. On the first of October 
he was, by his reckoning, 770 leagues W. of the Canaries. 
His men began to mutiny, and he was forced to promise 
to return in three days, if land did not appear, fortunate 
presages soon arose, as land-birds, a cane newly cut, a 
caiwed piece of wood, and the branch of a tree with fresh 
red berries. These and other symptoms induced Colon to 
order the ships to lie to in the evening of the 1 1th of Oc¬ 
tober, in the certainty of seeing land on the approach of 
day light. The night was passed in gazing expectation ; 
and a light having been observed in motion, the cry of land ! 
land l resounded from the head-most ship. With the 
dawn of Friday, October 12th, a beautiful isle appeared, 
two leagues to the north. Te Denm was sung with shouts 
of exultation, and every mark of gratitude and veneration 
to the admiral. Colon was the first who landed, to the 
great amazement of the natives, who regarded their visi¬ 
tors as children of the sun, the astonishment on both sides 
being indescribable. 

This first discovery of Colon, as we have observed, he 
called San Salvador, but it is now better known by the na¬ 
tive name of Guanahani, (the cat island of our mariners) 
being one of the group called the Bahama isles. Colon 
soon afterwards discovered Cuba and St. Domingo. After 
visiting the Azores on his return, he arrived at Lisbon on 
the 4th of March, 1493. 

1493. The second voyage of Colon 25th September. 
Steering more southerly, he discovered several of the Ca- 
ribbee islands. Returned in 1496. 

In this second voyage Colon brought a body of cavalry, 
and a number of large fierce dogs, to assist his barbarous 
countrymen, in hunting and pursuing the natives: though 
from the reception he met with on his first voyage, he had 
no reason to think they would be necessary, as long as he 
treated the natives with humanity and justice. 

1498. Third voyage of Colon toward the south-west, 
where he expected to find the spice Islands of India. On 
the 1st of August he. discovered an island which he called 
Trinidad, not far from the mouth of the river Oronoco. 
Fr@m the estuary of this river he judged that it must flow 


394 


AMERICA. 


through a country of immense extent; and he landed in 
several places on the coast of the continent now called 
Paria. He then returned to Hispaniola, or St. Domingo : 
and in October 1500, was sent back to Spain in chains 1 

1499. Ojeda, an officer who had accompanied Colon in 
his second voyage, sails to America with four ships, but 
discovered little more than Colon had done. One of the 
adventurers was Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine man of 
science, eminently skilled in navigation, who perhaps acted 
as chief pilot. On his return, Amerigo published the first 
description that had yet appeared of any part of the new 
continent: and the caprice of fame has assigned to him an 
honour above the renown of the greatest conquerors, that of 
indelibly impressing his name upon this vast portion of the 
earth. 

1500. On his voyage to the East Indies, Cabral, the 
Portuguese admiral, discovers Brazil. This undesigned 
discovery evinces, that independently of the sagacity of 
Colon, America could no longer have remained in obscurity. 

1502. Fourth voyage of Colon, in which he discovers a 
great part of the continent, and particularly the harbour of 
Porto-bello. 

15 13. Vasco Nugnez de Balboa descried, from the 
mountains of the isthmus, the grand Pacific Ocean ; and 
he afterwards waded into the waves, and took possession of 
it in the name of the Spanish monarch. This discovery 
seems to have terminated the vain expectation that Ame¬ 
rica formed part of Asia. . 

It seems unnecessary to trace with minuteness the other 
epochs of discovery in this quarter. In 1515 the continent 
was explored as far as Rio de Plata ; but even in 15 18 little 
was known concerning its western parts ; and twenty-six 
years had elapsed since the first voyage of Colon, before 
the existence was rumoured of the empires, or kingdoms 
of Mexico and Peru. Hispaniola and Cuba still continued 
to be the chief seats of the Spanish power. In 1519 Cortez, 
with eleven small vessels, containing 617 men, proceeds 
to the conquest of Mexico, which was accomplished in 
1521. Magalhaens, at the same time, having explored 
the Pacific Ocean, the discovery of the western coast of 
America became a necessary consequence. After many 
reports concerning the riches of Peru, that country was 
at length visited in 1 526 by Pizarro, in a vessel from Pa- 


AMERICA. 


395 


nama. In 1530 the conquest of Peru was begun by Pi- 
zarro, at the head of 36 cavalry and 144 infantry : and in 
ten years that empire was divided among his followers. In 
1543 the first Spanish viceroy appeared in Peru. 

In North America the epochs of discovery were more 
slow. 

1497. Giovanni Gaboto, a Venetian called by the Eng¬ 
lish John Cabot, who had received a commission from 
Henry VII. in 1495, in the view of tracing a nearer passage 
to India, discovered Newfoundland, so called by his sailors; 
and inspected the American shore as far as Virginia: but, 
this land forming merely an obstacle to his wishes, he re¬ 
turned to England. 

1500. Corte de Real, a Portuguese captain, in search of 
a north-west passage, discovered Labrador. 

1513. Florida was discovered by Ponce, a Spanish captain. 

15 34. Francis I. sending a fleet from St. Maloes, to es¬ 
tablish a settlement in North America, Cartier the eom- 
mander, on the day of St. Laurence, discovered the great 
gulph and river to which he gave the name of that saint. In 
the following year he sailed about 300 leagues up this no¬ 
ble stream to a great cataract, built a fort, and called the 
country New France. 

1578. Sir Humphrey Gilbert obtained a patent for set¬ 
tling lands in America. In 1583 he discovered and took 
possession of the harbour of St. John, and the country to 
the south, but was lost on his return. 

The voyage of Drake round the world served to kindle 
the enthusiasm of the English ; and Ralegh obtained a pa¬ 
tent similar to that of Gilbert. 

1584. Two small vessels dispatched by Ralegh unfor¬ 
tunately bent their course to that country now called North 
Carolina, instead of reaching the noble bays of Chesapeak 
or Delaware. These vessels returned to England, with two 
ol the natives : and Elizabeth assigned to this region the 
name of Virginia, an appellation which became laxly ap¬ 
plied to the British settlements in North America, till it 
was confined to a different country from the original Vir¬ 
ginia. 

1585. Ralegh sent a small colony under the command 
of Sir Richard Grenville, who settled in the isle of Roanoke, 
a most incommodious and useless station, whence they re¬ 
turned in 1586. The account of this settlement illustrated 


S96 


AMERICA. 


with excellent prints, was published under the auspices of 
Ralegh ; who made other unsuccessful attempts to colonize 
the country, and afterwards resigned his patent to some 
merchants, who were contented with a petty traffic. At 
the death of Elizabeth, 1603, there was not one Englishman 
settled in America: and the Spaniards and Portuguese 
alone had formed any establishment on that vast continent. 

The venerable Hakluyt, anxious that his country should 
partake of the benefit of colonies, procured an association 
of men of rank and talents for this purpose ; and a patent 
was granted by James I. April the 10th, 1606, that mo¬ 
narch being wholly unconscious that he was about to esta¬ 
blish an independent and mighty empire. Ihe bay of 
Chesapeak was discovered in 1607, and the first lasting 
settlement was founded at James-l-own, in modern Vir¬ 
ginia. Captain Smith, who afterwards published an ac¬ 
count of his voyages, displayed remarkable spirit, perse¬ 
verance and enterprise : yet so licentious and improvident 
were the adventurers in general, and so much had they suf¬ 
fered in consequence thereof, that they were about to re¬ 
turn to England in 1610, when Lord De-la-war arrived 
with a considerable reinforcement: and although the latter 
remained in the country only a short time, yet his prudent 
conduct gave such a turn to affairs, as established the co¬ 
lony. Some of the principal events that occurred in V ir- 
gihia, as well as in the other British colonies, after this 
period, will be taken notice of when we come to describe 
them separately. 

It may not be amiss briefly to state the epochs of a few 
other remarkable events in the northern regions of this 
Continent, as this seems to be the most proper place to in¬ 
troduce them. 

1585. Capt. John Davis visited the western coast of 
Greenland, and discovered Davis’s straits ; in subsequent 
voyages, he discovered the island of Disko, and Cumber¬ 
land strait, and navigated as far to the north as latitude 72°, 
where he was stopped by fields of ice. 1610. Hudson 
discovered the straits that bear his, and that inland sea 
called Hudson’s bay. 1616. Capt. Bilot was sent to at¬ 
tempt aN. W. passage to India—and William Baffin sail¬ 
ed with him as a pilot, who on his return published a pom¬ 
pous account of the discovery of Baffin’s bay, and various 
sounds and islands as far north as78 v , all oi them perfect- 



AMERICA. 


39 7 


ly unknown to any preceding or succeeding navigator.— 
The general line of the Arctic sea, in this quarter, as seen 
by Mr. Hearne in 1772, and Mr. Mackenzie in 1789, is 
about latitude 70°, a little higher than which it probably 
coalesces with what is called in our maps Baffin’s bay. 

Population. The general population of this im¬ 
mense Continent remains to be the subject of doubtful dis¬ 
cussion ; some having supposed that it amounted to 150 
millions, while others have sunk it 15 millions. The truth 
lies between the two opinions, and perhaps approaches 
nearest to the latter. The population of British America 
is said not to exceed 200,000, and suppose the- savages are 
an equal number, together they amount to 400 , 000 . Sup¬ 
posing the United States to have 6,000,000 and the em¬ 
pire of Mexico 4 , 000,000 of native race, and 3 , 000,000 of 
foreign extract, and you obtain an aggregate of 13 , 400 , 000 . 
Peru and Chili can scarcely contain above 7 millions— 
the other Spanish dominions 2 millions, and Brazil and 
Paraguay 4 millions : the other parts are mostly wide de¬ 
serts. The total then amounts to no more than 26 , 400 , 000 , 
not equal to the population of a single state in Europe. 


NORTH AMERICA. 


Boundaries. THIS division of the new conti¬ 
nent is bounded on the east by the Atlantic ; and on the 
west by the Great, or Pacific Ocean. On the south it is 
understood to extend to the vicinity of Panama, the pro¬ 
vince of Veragua being universally considered as part of 
North America. The northern limits have not been clear¬ 
ly ascertained ; but as it is improbable that a slip of land, 
on the N. W. of Hudson’s Bay, should extend far to the 
north, the limit may probably- be discovered about 74° or 
75*. In the mean time 72 degrees may be safely assum¬ 
ed ; whence to the southern boundary, about N. lat. 7<* 
30’, as marked in the map of Lacruz, there will be 641-2 

l 1 




398 


NORTH AMERICA. 


degrees, or 3870 g. miles ; more than 4500 British. The 
breadth from the promontory of Alaska to the extreme 
point of Labrador, or the Cape of St. Charles, will exceed 
the length. If it should be discovered that Greenland is 
united to the arctic lands of America, as Kamtschatka is, 
for instance, to Asia, both the length and breadth will be 
greatly increased. 

Original Population. In pursuing the ar¬ 
rangement of topics, here adopted in the general descrip¬ 
tion of a continent, the first which occurs is the ancient 
population ; but our knowledge of the American languages 
is still so imperfect that the subject is involved in great 
doubts. None of the native nations of America displays 
the smallest trace of the oblique eyes, and other remarka¬ 
ble features by which the inhabitants of eastern Asia are 
distinguished. Far from this, Pallas, Lesseps, Tooke, 
and other skilful inquirers, have pronounced that the 
I echuks and Koriaks undoubtedly proceeded from Ame¬ 
rica, as they have not one Asiatic lineament: or we must 
suppose that these Asiatic tribes have emigrated to Ame¬ 
rica, as it is said that their country was once very popu¬ 
lous, and is now but ihinly inhabited. 

Language. '1 he languages are various. The 
European settlements speak the languages of the several 
mother countries, in some instances a little corrupted. 
It is to be regretted that neither in North or South Ame¬ 
rica, have the languages of the natives been compared, 
and classed with requisite care and precision. Travel¬ 
lers, however, in the internal parts of N. A. particularly 
Charlevoix and Carver, assert that there are but four mo¬ 
ther tongues among all the savage tribes dispersed from 
Labrador to Florida, viz. those of the Siouse or Naudo- 
wessis, the Hurons or Iroquois, the Algonquins or Chip- 
pewees, and the Cherokees and Chickesaws ; that with a 
knowledge of these languages, a person might travel 1500 
leagues of the country, without an interpreter, and make 
himself understood by above one hundred different tribes, 
who have as many different dialects. These four primi¬ 
tive languages have little or no affinity to one another, as 
is sufficiently evident from the pronunciation alone. The 
Siouse or Naudowessi Indian hisses rather than speaks. 
His language is exceedingly soft, without any gutturals, 
and may be easily learned. It prevails altogether on the 


NORTH AMERICA. 


399 


West of the Mississippi, and extends perhaps to the shores 
of the pacific ocean. The Huron knows none of the labial 
letters, speaks through the throat, and aspirates almost 
all the syllables. '1 he Algonquin pronounces with a soft¬ 
er tone, and speaks more naturally : his language has not 
the same force as that of the Huron, but it possesses more 
sweetness and elegance. All these languages have this in 
common with those of Asia, that they abound in bold and 
expressive figures. 

Religion. The ruling religion in North America 
is the Christian ; the Protestant, under various denomi¬ 
nations in the United States ; the Homan Catholic in the 
Spanish dominions, and among the French in Canada. 
The accounts that the Missionaries and travellers give of 
the religion of the native nations are various and unsatis¬ 
factory. A distinguished Missionary asserts that the Iro¬ 
quois or six nations have no form of religious worship—- 
and when they undertake to discourse on the first man, and 
the origin of the world, they utter so many absurdities, 
and in so confused a manner, that it is impossible to com¬ 
prehend their meaning. They have some ideas of a fu¬ 
ture life ; they believe for instance that those who have 
been great hunters, or formidable warriors, will pass after 
death into regions abounding with all manner of fruits and 
animals, where they will be supremely happy and content¬ 
ed ; and, on the contrary, that those who have led wick¬ 
ed lives, and have rendered no public service to bis village 
or canton, will be transported to a barren country, where 
he will suffer every evil. Many of the Indian nations who 
live in the south, worship the sun. The Poutewatamies 
ascend to the top of their cabbins, at sun rise, and after 
several genuflexions, attended with various motions of the 
arms and head, present an offering of venison and Indian 
cake to that luminary. This kind of peace offering sacri¬ 
ficed to the sun or to a Manitou (the name by which the 
Autawaes distinguish the spirit that presides over them) 
are the only religious acts that have been discovered among 
the savages. 

Climate. The climate of North America is ex¬ 
tremely various as may be conceived in a region extending 
from near the Equator to the arctic circle. In general, the 
heat of summer and the cold of winter are more intense 
than in most parts of the ancient continent. Near Hud- 


400 NORTH AMERICA, 

v • • 

son’s Bay Farenheit’s thermometer has risen in July to 
85 w , and sunk in January to 45°, below 0. In Georgia it 
has risen to 100°, in the summer, in the shade, and has 
been observed as high as 86°, falling the next day as low 
as 38°, in the winter. The predominant winds are from 
the west, and south west—and the severest cold is from 
the N. W. The middle states are remarkable for the un¬ 
steadiness of the weather, particularly the quick transitions 
from heat to cold. Snow falls plentifully in Virginia, but 
seldom lies above a few days ; yet after a mild clay, James 
RiVer has in one night been filled with ice. These sur¬ 
prising changes are owing to a sudden shifting of the wind 
to the N. W. and blowing steadily for some hours from 
that cold quarter. South Carolina, Georgia and Florida 
are subject to unsufferable heat, furious whirlwinds, hur¬ 
ricanes, overwhelming floods from the ocean, tremendous, 
thunder and lightning. These sudden transitions are eve¬ 
ry where pernicious to the human frame. From the few 
observations that have been made on the climate in the 
western parts of North America, it appears to be more 
temperate and less affected with sudden variations. That 
of California seems in general to be moderate and pleasant, 
though not free from intense heat in summer. In latitude 
59°,. the land has a most barren and wintry appearance 
even in June : the gloom is increased by frequent fogs, 
and La Perouse observes that the glaciers seem perpe¬ 
tual. 

Inland Skas. Among the inland seas of North 
America may be mentioned the gulphs of Mexico, Califor¬ 
nia, and St. Lawrence ; with Hudson’s Bay, or rather 
Hudson’s Sea, and what is called the strait of Davis, which 
is probably a sea of communication between the Atlantic 
and the arctic oceans. The existence of Baffin’s Bay is 
dou btful. 

Of all these seas the gulf of Mexico is the most cele¬ 
brated, as presenting at its entrance that grand archipelago 
of North American islands, called the West Indies, and 
the estuary of the great river Mississippi. From this 
gulf a singular current sets towards the N. E. called the 
gulf stream, and passes to the banks of Newfoundland. It 
is distinguished from other parts of the ocean by the gulf 
weed ; is eight or ten degrees warmer; never sparkles in 


NORTH AMERICA. 


401 


thfc night; and when it arrives in cool latitudes produces 
thick fogs. 

The opposite shore presents the gulf of California, which 
seems an estuary of two large rivers. The gulf of St. 
Lawrence is the well known estuary of a river of the same 
name, generally frozen from December to April. This 
noble gulf is closed by the island of Newfoundland, and by 
numerous sand banks, particularly what is called the Great 
Bank. This celebrated fishing station is more than 400 
miles in length, by about 140 in breadth. The greatest 
number of cod fish, taken by a single fisherman, is twelve 
thousand, but the average is seven thousand : the largest 
fish was four feet three inches in length, and weighed forty- 
six pounds. More than 500 English vessels commonly 
fish on the bank ; and a considerable number from the 
United States. 

Hudson Sea may be considered as extending from the 
entrance of Hudson Strait, to its western extremity, that 
is thirty degrees of long, which in lat. 60°, will be S00 g. 
miles, exceeding the Baltic in length as well as breadth. 
The shores are generally rocky and precipitous, and the 
climate is almost the perpetual abode of winter, the hot 
weather in June being brief though violent. The large 
tract of territory on the south of this sea is the property of 
the Hudson’s Bay Company, whose chief profits are de¬ 
rived from furs. This sea has been repeatedly explored 
for a N. W. passage in vain. 

Lakes. The lakes Superior, Michigan and Huron, 
with their connecting straits, form one large inland sea, 
which might be called the sea of Canada. This expan¬ 
sion of water is about 500 miles in length and more than 
180 at its greatest breadth, extending from the latitude of 
42°, to 48°. According to the French charts, lake Su¬ 
perior is not less than 1500 miles in circumference. The 
greater part of the coast consists of rocks and uneven 
ground. The water is pure and transparent; and the bot¬ 
tom generally composed of large rocks. There are seve¬ 
ral islands in it, one of which called Minong is about* 60 miles 
in length. More than thirty rivers fall into this lake. It 
is connected by a strait of about 40 miles in length, with 
lake Huron, which being the second in magnitude, is esti¬ 
mated to be about 1000 miles in circumference ; and it i&. 
united with lake Michigan* the third arm of this inland sea. 

l 1 2 


402 


NORTH AMERICA. 


by another strait, called the strait of Michillimakinak. 
This last lake is about 280 miles long by about 40 miles 
broad, and lies wholly within the limits of the United 
States. But to the north of these is the lake of the Woods, 
which must not be omitted as it forms the north-western 
boundary of the United States. It is situated on the com¬ 
munication between lake Superior and the upper lakes Win- 
nipek and Bourbon in the lat. of 49° 37’, N. and long, of 
04° 31' W. from London. After passing lakes Superior, 
Michigan and Huron, we reach lake Erie, which commu¬ 
nicates with them by the straits of Detroit, where the Ame¬ 
ricans have a garrison. Lake Erie is near 300 miles long 
from E. to W. and about 40 miles in its broadest part. 
Near the west end there are several islands, so infested 
with rattle snakes as to render it unsafe to land on them. 
The navigation of this lake is accounted more dangerous 
than that of any other, though storms on all of them are often 
as formidable as those on the ocean. It discharges itself 
through the river Niagara, and over the tremendous falls 
of that river into the west end of lake Ontario ; and this 
last which is the least of the five great lakes of Canada, 
being about 600 miles in circumference, pours its waters 
through the river Cataragui into the great river St. Law¬ 
rence. 

The lake of Winnipeg or Winipic, may also aspire to 
the name of an inland sea ; but it yields considerably to the 
great Slave lake, or rather sea, a recent discovery, from 
which Mackenzie’s river extends its course to the Arctic 
ocean. The Slave sea, according to Arrowsmith’s maps, 
is about 200 miles in length by 100 at its greatest breadth. 

The smaller lakes shall be briefly described in the divi¬ 
sions of territory to which they more directly belong. 

Rivers. Under this head -we shall only take ne- 
ef tice the great rivers St. Lawrence and Mississippi, re¬ 
serving the other principal streams to the states in which 
they are most known.—The river St. Lawrence which 
rises in lake Ontario and running through lower Canada, 
empties into a gulph of its own name, is universally re¬ 
garded as the second in North America ; being not less 
than 90 miles wide at its mouth, and navigable for ships 
of the line as far as Quebec, a distance of 400 miles from 
the sea. Near Quebec it is five miles in breadth, and at 
Montreal from two to four. Above this there are rapids 


NORTH AMERICA, 


403 


which render the navigation dangerous, but in boats it may¬ 
be passed to near Kingston and lake Ontario, 743 miles 
from the sea. But the navigation is interrupted several 
months in the year by the intense cold of the climate. 
The Mississippi is the largest river that is known in North 
America. It is the great channel that receives the waters 
of the Ohio, the Illinois, and their numerous branches from 
the east, and of the Missouri, the Akanza and Red river, 
and other inferior streams on the west. The northernmost 
and most distant branch of its source is in lat. 49° 37’, and 
long. 94° 3 1% W. from London. Its length to its entrance 
into the Gulf of Mexico, is supposed to be 3000 miles. In 
this river, in lat. 44° 30’, are the falls of St. Anthony, 
where the stream, more than 250 yards wide, falls perpen¬ 
dicular about 30 feet. But the Missouri is so much larger 
and bolder than the Mississippi where they unite in lat. 
39°, that some have supposed that the former is the prin¬ 
cipal stream. It has been ascended by French traders up¬ 
wards of 1200 miles, and from its depth and breadth at 
that distance, appeared to be navigable much higher. In 
lat. 47° 32’, and long. 1G1S 25’, it makes a considerable 
bend to the south of west. 

Mountains. The mountains of North America 
are far from rivalling the Andes in the south. Some irre¬ 
gular ranges pervade the Isthmus, but it seems mere theory 
to consider them connected with the Andes, as they have 
neither the same character nor direction. On the west 
of the Province of Darien, a considerable chain passes N. 
and S. which may be considered as a natural boundary be¬ 
tween North and South America. 

On the west, so far as discovered, a range of mountains 
proceeds from New Mexico in a northern direction, and 
passing on the west of the lakes, joins the ridge called the 
Stoney Mountains, which extend to the vicinity of the Arc¬ 
tic ocean. The Stoney Mountains are said to be about 
3500 feet above their base, which may perhaps be 3000 
feet above the sea. In general, from the account of navi¬ 
gators who have visited the N. W. coast, it seems to resem¬ 
ble that of Norway, being a wild alpine country of great 
extent; while the shore presents innumerable creeks and 
islands. This tract, from the Stoney Mountains and Mac¬ 
kenzie’s river westward to the source of the Oregan and 
Beering’s strait, may perhaps be found to contain the high- 


404 


NORTH AMERICA. 


est mountains in North America, when completely ex¬ 
plored by the eye of science. On the north-east, Green¬ 
land, Labrador, and the countries around Hudson Sea, pre¬ 
sent irregular masses covered with eternal snow, with 
black naked peaks, resembling in form the spires of the 
alps, but of far inferior elevation, mountains generally de¬ 
creasing in height towards the pole. 

The most celebrated mountains in North America are 
those called the Apalachian, passing through the territory 
of the United States from the S. W. to the N. E. Accord¬ 
ing to the best maps, they commence on the north of 
Georgia, where they give source to many rivers running 
south to the gulf of Mexico; and to the Tennessee and others 
running north. There are several collateral ridges, as the 
Iron or Bald Mountains, the White Oak Mountains, and 
others ; the exterior skirt on the N. W. being the Cum¬ 
berland Mountains. The Apalachian chain thence extends 
through the western territory of Virginia, accompanied 
with its collateral ridges ; the breadth of the whole being 
often seventy miles, and proceeds through Pennsylvania, 
then passes Hudson river ; and afterwards rises to greater 
elevation, but seems to expire in the country of New 
Brunswick. 

The Apalachian chain may thus extend about 900 g. miles, 
a length unrivalled by any European mountains, except 
the Norwegian alps. In no chain perhaps are the collate¬ 
ral ridges more distinct; and a naturalist would at once 
pronounce that the central, or highest, must bo granitic, 
the next schistose, and the exterior belts calcareous. 

Before we review the European possessions and the 
United States of North America, it will not be amiss to 
take some notice of the northern extremity, and the central 
parts of this quarter of the globe, which remain under the 
dominion of the native tribes, and are yet very imperfectly 
known. 


GREENLAND. 


THE discovery of this extensive region, whether conti¬ 
nental or insular, was effected by the people of Iceland in 
the tenth century ; the distance, according to the best maps, 


NORTH AMERICA. 


405 


being about eight degrees of longitude in lat. 66°, or near¬ 
ly 200 g. miles. The intercourse between this colony and 
Denmark was maintained till the beginning of the fifteenth 
century, the last of seventeen bishops being named in 1406: 
and in that century, the colony appears to have been com¬ 
pletely imprisoned by the frozen ocean ; while on the west 
a range of impassable mountains and plains, covered by 
perpetual ice, precluded all access. The ancient settlement 
contained several churches and monasteries, the names 
and positions of which may still be traced. On the west 
some ruins of churches have also been discovered. A pious 
Norwegian clergyman, named Egede, being deeply im¬ 
pressed with the melancholy account he had heard or read 
of this colony, in 172 1 proceeded to the western shore, 
where he continued till 1735, preaching the gospel to the 
natives, his benevolent example having been since followed 
by several missionaries. The sect called Moravians began 
their settlements about thirty years after. It is said that 
the country is inhabited as far as 76° ; but the Danish and 
Moravian settlements are chiefly in the S. W. 

This dreary country may be said to consist of rocks, ice, 
and snow ; but in the southern parts there are some small 
junipers, willows and birch. There are rein-deer, and 
some dogs resembling wolves,, with arctic foxes, and polar 
bears. Hares are common ; and the walrus, and five kinds 
of seals, frequent the shores. The birds, particularly sea 
and water fowl, are tolerably numerous ; as are the fish ; 
ai)d the insects exceed ninety species. 

The short summer is very warm, but foggy ; and the 
rvbrthern lights diversify the gloom of winter. • What is 
called the frost smoke bursts from cracks in the frozen 
ocean. The natives are short, with long black hair, small 
eyes, and flat faces, being a branch of the Iskimos, or 
American Samoieds : it is supposed that they do not now 
exceed ten thousand, the number having been greatly re¬ 
duced by the small-pox. Their canoes, in which one man 
proceeds to kill seals, are of a singular construction, and 
have sometimes been wafted as far as the Orkneys. The 
highest mountains are on the west side ; and what is called 
the Stag’s Horn is visible from sea at the distance of forty 
or sixty leagues. The winter is very severe ; and the rocks 
often burst by the intensity of the frost. Above 66?, the 


406 


NORTH AMERICA. 


sun does not set in the longest days, and at 64°, is not four 
hours beneath the horizon. 


HUDSON’S BAY. 


THE inland sea commonly called Hudson’s Bay was 
explored in 1610; and a charter for planting and improv¬ 
ing the country, and carrying on trade, was granted to a 
company in 1670. The Hudson’s Bay Company has since 
retained a claim to most extensive territories, on the west, 
south, and east, of that inland sea, supposed to extend from 
70° to 115° ; and, allowing the degree only thirty miles, 
the length will be 1350 g. miles, and the medial breadth 
about 350. 

In the south, James’ Bay stretches inland about 300 
miles by about 150 in breadth ; and the most valuable set¬ 
tlements are in that vicinity, as Albany fort, Moose fort, and 
East Main factory. Farther to the south, and on the con¬ 
fines of Upper Canada, are Brunswick house, Frederick 
house, and some others, which, perhaps, belong to the 
North West Company. In the North, Severn house is at. 
the mouth of a large river, which seems to flow from the 
lake of Winnipic. York fort stands on Nelson river ; and 
still farther to the north is Churchill fort, which seems the 
farthest settlement in that direction. The most important 
rivers are the Nelson and Saskashawin, and the Severn ; 
the comparative course of the latter scarcely exceeding 400 
B. miles, but of great breadth and depth. In the south the 
Albany, Moose, Abitib, and Harricana, are the most consi¬ 
derable ; but all the rivers are impeded with falls and shoals. 
The sea of Hudson commonly presents bold rocky shores ; 
but at intervals there are marshes and large beaches. 

Even in lat. 57°, the winters are extremely severe ; the 
ice on the rivers is eight feet thick, and brandy coagulates. 
The rocks burst with a horrible noise, equal to that of hea¬ 
vy artillery, and the splinters are thrown to an amazing 
distance. The aurora borealis diffuses a variegated splen¬ 
dour, which equals that of the full moon ; and the stars 
sparkle with fiefy redness. The northern indigenes are 
lskimos ; but there are other savages in the south : and 
the factories are visited by several tribes. It has*been said 


NORTH AMERICA. 


40 7 


that the trade to these regions might be made more pro¬ 
fitable to the nation, if the monopoly were removed. The 
company employ annually only four ships, and 130 sea¬ 
men in the trade. They export thither British manufac¬ 
tures to the amount of 16,000/. and import from thence, 
furs to the value of 29,000/. sterling. 


LABRADOR. 


THIS large extent of coast was so named by the Por¬ 
tuguese navigator who made the first discovery. There 
were here only a few factories, till the Moravian clergy 
formed little settlements, particularly at Nain, about 1764. 
The natives seem to be chiefly Iskimos, and their manners 
are very filthy. He who wishes to study the manners of 
bears may here find ample satisfaction. At a cataract, sur¬ 
rounded with alders, Spruces, firs, larches, birch, and aspin, 
many salmon ascend, and the bears assemble in numbers 
to catch their favourite prey. Some dive after the fish, 
and do not appear again till at the distance of seventy or 
eighty yards. Cartwright counted thirty-two white bears, 
and three black ones. Rein-deer also abound, and their 
venison is excellent. So far as discovered, Labrador is ge¬ 
nerally hilly, and even mountainous. The eastern coast 
exhibits a most barren and iron bound appearance. Rivers, 
brooks, lakes, pools, and ponds, are abundant, rich in fish, 
and frequented by innumerable birds. Inland the air is 
milder ; there are many trees, and some symptoms of ferti¬ 
lity. The plants are wild celery, scurvy-grass, sorrel, and 
Indian salad. The birds are common to arctic regions, 
and the animals are mostly of the fur-bearing kind. The 
natives are mountaineers and Iskimos ; the former re¬ 
sembling gypsies, with somewhat of French features from 
a mixture of Canadian blood. They chiefly live on rein¬ 
deer, and also kill foxes, martins, and beavers. They live 
in wigwams, a kind of tents covered with deer skin and 
birch bark : and are a sort of Roman Catholics, being anxi¬ 
ous to visit the priests at Quebec. The Iskimos are the 
same people with the Greenlanders. They use sledges 
drawn by dogs, as in Asia. The only attempts hitherto 
made towards trade, has been in the fishery. The exports 


408 


NORTH AMERICA. 


annually to Great Britain, and other parts of Europe 
amount to 49,000/. sterling. 

CENTRAL PARTS. 

:/ Wl 

■ 

TILL the journey of Mr. Hearne, an officer of the Hud! 
son’s Bay Company, in 1771, and the more difficult ano 
laborious enterprises of Mr. Mackenzie in 1789 and 1793 ; 
little was known concerning the interior parts of North 
America. 

Mr. Hearne performed his journeys in the North in the 
years 1769—1772 ; bat his book did not appear till 17951 
He proceeded from Fort Prince of Wales, or Churchill, 
and explored a group of lakes, called Doobant and other 
names, near Chesterfield inlet; and, farther to the west, a 
lake of great extent, which he calls Athapuscow, the cen¬ 
tre being in long. 125®, lat. 62° ; evidently the Slave lake 
of Mr. Mackenzie, in the same latitude, but long. 115°. 
On the 14th of July 1771, he arrived at the Copper river, 
and on the 17th he was within sight of the sea. “ The tide 
being out, the water in the river was perfectly fresh ; but 
I am certain, says our traveller, of its being the sea, or some 
branch of it, by the quantity of whalebone and seal-skins 
which the Iskimos had at their tents, and also by the num¬ 
ber of seals which I saw on the ice. At the mouth of the 
river the sea is full of islands and shoals, as far as I could 
see with the assistance of a good pocket telescope.” He 
found the Iskimos here of a dirty copper colour, and ra¬ 
ther shorter in stature than those to the south. The ket¬ 
tles are made of lapis ollaris, of a mixed brown and white ; 
and their hatchets and knives are of copper. The dogs 
have sharp erect ears, pointed noses, and bushy tails, be¬ 
ing a fine breed of that sort. Many kinds of sea-fowl were 
observed; and in the ponds and marshes swans, geese, 
curlews, and plovers. The quadrupeds are musk cattle, 
rein-deer, bears, wolves, wolvereens, foxes, alpine hares, 
squirrels, ermines, mice. Copper is found herein lumps, 
and is beaten out by the help of fire and two stones. Upon 
his return, Mr. Hearne passed farther to the west; and on 
the 24th of December, 1771, he arrived at the north side 
of the great lake of Athapuscow, or about 120 leagues in 


NORTH AMERICA. 


409 


length, from east to west; and 2o wide. It is stored with 
great quantities of pike, trout, perch, barbel, and two other 
sorts of fish called by the natives littameg and methy. On 
the southern shore of Athapuscow, there are many wild 
cattle and moose deer, the former, particularly the bulls, 
being larger than the English black cattle. 

Mr. Mackenzie’s journeys were of yet more conse¬ 
quence. In June 1789 he embarked in a canoe at fort 
Chepiwian, on the south of the Lake of the Hills, and pro¬ 
ceeded along the Slave river called by Hearne Athapuscow 
to the Slave lake, whence he entered a river now called af¬ 
ter his own name, pursuing it till he reached the Arctic 
ocean. 1 he Slave lake he found covered with ice in the 
month of June, and the chief fish were carp, white fish, 
trout, and pike. The banks were covered with spruce, pine, 
white birch, poplars. On the 11th of July the sun remained 
all night considerably above the horizon ; and soon after he 
seems to have reached the sea, in which, near the wide 
estuary of the river, he observed several whales. Though 
so far to the north, there seem to be other savages besides 
Iskimos ; and it would appear from their report that there 
is another large river on the western side of the Rocky 
Mountains, which also joins the Arctic Ocean. On the 
12th September 1789, our author finished his first voyage, 
which had occupied one hundred and two days. A complete 
confirmation thence arises that there is no northern com¬ 
munication between the Atlantic and the Pacific ; except 
at so high a latitude that it must be impeded by perpetual 
ice. 

Equally important and interesting was Mr. Mackenzie’s 
second voyage. Our enterprising traveller left fort Che¬ 
piwian on the 10th October, 1792, and proceeded by land 
and water till he reached the river Oregan, Columbia, or 
the Great River of the West. After proceeding a consi¬ 
derable way he returned against the stream, and then tra¬ 
velled to the Pacific Ocean by land ; and reached one of the 
numerous inlets in lat. 52° 20k On the west of the Un- 
jiga beautiful scenery was observed, interspersed with hill 
and lawn, with groves of poplars, and enlivened with vast 
herds of elks on the uphands, and of buffaloes on the plains. 
That fierce species called the grizzly bear was also seen. 
The cold was often extreme, rather from the height of the 
general level than that of the mountains, which does not 

m m 



410 


NORTH AMERICA. 


exceed 1500 feet. Among the birds observed were blue 
jays, yellow birds, and beautiful humming birds. Beavers 
are common, and tracks of moose deer were remarked. 
Towards the Pacific the natives are fairer than in the other 
parts of North America ; and one man was at least six feet 
four inches in height. Their eyes are not dark, like those 
of the other Indians, but grey, with a tinge of red. The 
men wear only a robe made of the bark of the cedar tree, 
rendered as fine as hemp, sometimes with borders of red 
and yellow threads; and the women add a short apron. 
Some of their canoes are forty-five feet in length, the gun¬ 
wale being inlaid with the teeth of the sea otter, not with 
human teeth, as Captain Cook supposed. In September, 
1793, he returned to fort Chepiwian, after an absence of 
eleven months. 

By the traditions of the western Indians they came from 
Siberia ; while intelligent travellers, on the contrary, con¬ 
sider the Techuks as proceeding from America : but such 
interchanges of nations are not unfrequent in barbarous 
periods. The tribes near the source of the Missouri are 
said to be from the south, and their progress N. W. pro¬ 
bably retiring from the Spanish power. The language of 
the Natchez, and other nations in the Spanish territory, 
has been sufficiently illustrated ; and in the isthmus the 
dialects are said to be various, and radically distinct, yet 
probably, on a nearer and more skilful examination,would 
be found to approach the Mexican. 


WESTERN COAST. 


THE Russians may be regarded as the first discoverers 
of the north-western shores of America. The isles between 
Asia and this continent in their most recent maps are styled 
the Aleutian Isles. 

This coast seems to be chiefly alpine ; in which respect, 
and in its numerous creeks and isles, it bears no small re¬ 
semblance to Norway. The most remarkable mountain 
seems to be that called St. Elias by the Russian navigators; 
and which, it is affirmed, has been visible at sea at no less a 


NORTH AMERICA. 


411 

distance than about sixty leagues. At Port des Francois , 
lat. 58^ 37', La Perouse observes that the summits are co¬ 
vered with perpetual snow, and immense glaciers wind 
through the cavities. The lofty mountains, which La Pe¬ 
rouse computes at more than ten thousand feet in height, 
terminate at Cross Sound ; but the alpine ridges continue, 
though of smaller elevation, and probably extend with few 
interruptions as far as California. Mr. Mackenzie in lat. 
53°, and Vancouver in a more southern latitude, found the 
- same mountainous appearances. 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. 


Canada. — JVew Brunswick.—Nova Scotia.—Cape Breton .— 
Newfoundland—The Bermudas. 

THOSE parts of North America which belong to Great 
Britain are extensive, and of considerable importance, 
though so thinly peopled, and in such a disadvantageous 
climate, that they sink into insignificance, when compared 
with the great and flourishing colonies belonging to Spain, 
or with the territories of the United States. The inhabi¬ 
tants of the former have been estimated at seven millions, 
and those of the states at six ; while those of the British 
possessions scarcely exceed two hundred thousand souls, 
and the far greater part are French and natives. 

Di visions. The chief of these possessions is Ca¬ 

nada, now divided into two provinces, called Upper and 
Lower Canada ; the former being the western division, on 
the north of the great lakes or sea of Canada ; while the 
lower division is on the river St. Lawrence towards the 
east, and contains Quebec the capital, and the chief city of 
the British settlements. 

On the east of Canada, to the south of the river St. Law¬ 
rence, is Nova Scotia; which in 1784 was divided into two 
provinces, that of Nova Scotia in the south, and New 
Brunswick in the north. 





412 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 


What is called New Britain comprehends the most nor¬ 
thern parts towards Hudson’s Bay, and the coast of La¬ 
brador. The large island of Newfoundland ; that called 
Cape Breton ; and the neighbouring isle St. John ; com¬ 
plete the chief denominations of British territory. But in 
the English maps, while Greenland is assigned to Denmark, 
all the other most northern parts of America- on the east 
ami on the west, as far south as the port of Sir Francis 
Drake, are impressed with the colour of British territory. 
By the right of prior, or at least of more complete and pre¬ 
cise discovery, the western coast might also be considered 
as belonging to England, according to the established 
usage of all European nations. 


CANADA. 


Extent. THIS country is computed to extend from 
the gulph of St. Lawrence, and isle of Anticosti in the east 
to the lake of Winnipeg in the west, or from long. 64° to 
07° west from London, thirty-three degrees, which in that 
latitude may be about 1200 g. miles. The breadth, from 
the lake of Erie, in the south, or lat. 43°, may extend to 
lat. 49°, or 360 g. miles ; but the medial breadth is not 
above 200 .— The first European settlement was made by 
the French in 1608. During a century and a half that they 
possessed Canada, they rambled far to the west, in quest 
of furs and converts to the Catholic religion, but made small 
advance in improving the country. Quebec being conquer¬ 
ed by Wolfe, 1759, Canada was ceded to Great Britain by 
the treaty of Paris, 1763. 

Religion and Government. The prevailing 
religion is the Roman Catholic. It was introduced by the 
first European settlers with all the glare and pomp that 
distinguishes the Roman Church, and adapts it to impress 
the minds of savages with reverence : these, with the zeal 
and assiduity of numerous missionaries, have given it a con¬ 
siderable extension among the natives. The priests are still 
attentive to the instruction and the morals of their Indian 
converts, among some of whom they have introduced a 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 413 


considerable degree of subordination and industry. The 
Protestant religion, under all its denominations, is equally 
patronized by the British government, but its teachers are 
certainly more indifferent about its propagation, for it has 
lost more proselytes than it has gained in Canada. But the 
intercourse among the heads of departments and commu¬ 
nities is conducted with so much prudence and politeness 
as to preserve a general harmony, and to inspire the people 
with a due respect for civil authority. 

The government is energetic, while it is tempered with 
such uniform justice as to render the people secure in all 
their religious and civil rights.—-There is one governor ge¬ 
neral who superintends all the British possessions in North 
America, and a lieutenant governor to each of the four 
provinces into which the territories aie divided.—In the 
year 17'i'O Canada was erected into two separate govern¬ 
ments, by an act of parliament, and styled Upper and Lower 
Canada. Each has a lieutenant governor, a legislative 
council, and a house of assembly.—The governor and 
council are appointed by the crown, the latter during 
life, and the assembly are chosen by the freeholders.—The 
assembly are elected for four years, and meet annually for 
the dispatch of business. The seat of government for Upper 
Canada, is at Newark, on lake Ontario, and for Lower Ca¬ 
nada, at Quebec, on the river St. Lawrence.—Weekly 
courts, called courts of request, are held by two justices of 
the peace, who have cognizance of all demands under eight 
dollars.—There are also district courts, held every three 
months, in which a judge presides, and trials are by juries 
of twelve men, without appeal, in all causes not exceeding 
sixty dollars. All sums above that value are determined be¬ 
fore the chief justice, and two associate judges who make an 
annual circuit through the province—and from this judica¬ 
tory there may be an appeal to the governor and council.— 
The people manage all their own local concerns, such as 
the election of constables, path-masters, and other town 
officers. There are no duties on goods imported or ex¬ 
ported, except a light impost on spirits, wines, and a few 
other luxuries ; no quit-rents ; and no taxes, except an in¬ 
considerable county rate. In short, it is a well known fact, 
that the British nation does not derive a revenue from these 
provinces equal to what is expended in protecting and go¬ 
verning the same. —The population is increasing rapidly, as 

Mm2 


414 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 


there have been, and still are, great emigration^ from the 
United States into Upper Canada.—The only revenue 
arising to Great Britain from this colony seems to proceed 
from an advantageous commerce, which is said to employ 
about seven thousand tons of shipping.—The expences of 
the civil list are supposed to be 25,000/. of which one half is 
paid by Great Britain, and the other by the provinces, from 
duties on the importation of spirits, wine, and a few other 
articles.—The military establishment, with repairs of forts, 
S^c. is stated at 100,000/. and the like sum for presents to 
the savages, and salaries to officers employed among them 
for trade, &c. in Upper Canada. But the advantages of the 
commerce which increases annually are thought to coun¬ 
terbalance these expencea. The exports and imports 
have increased sixfold in about thirty years, the former prin¬ 
cipally if not wholly of domestic produce. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the settlers in Canada are considerably tinctured 
with the French gaiety and urbanity. The French women 
in Canada can generally read and write, and are thus supe¬ 
rior to the men ; hut both preserve their ancient supersti¬ 
tion, and are devoted to their priests. They universally 
use the French language, English being confined to the 
acts of government and the few British settlers, but will 
finally become prevalent. 

The chief town is Quebec, built on a lofty point of land 
on the north-west side of the great river St. Lawrence ; 
which in the neighbourhood is sufficiently deep and 
spacious to float more than one hundred sail of the line. 
The upper town, on a rock of limestone, is of considera¬ 
ble natural strength, and well fortified ; but the lower 
town towards the river is open to every attack. A large 
garrison is maintained ; but five thousand soldiers would 
be necessary to man the works. The inhabitants are 
supposed to be ten thousand, about two thirds being 
French ; and the presence of the governor, courts, and gar¬ 
rison, conspire to render it gay and lively. The lower 
town is mostly inhabited by traders and mariners. The 
houses are commonly of stone, small, ugly, and inconveni¬ 
ent; but the new part of the governor’s house, for there is 
ro citadel, is upon an improved plan. The Monasteries 
are almost extinct; yet there are three nunneries. The 
market is well supplied ; and the little carts are often drawn 
by dogs. The vicinity presents most sublime and beauti- 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 415 


fill scenery ; and the falls of the river Montmorenci are 
particularly celebrated. 

Montreal is a neat town, on the east side of a considera¬ 
ble island, formed by the river St. Lawrence at its junction 
with the river Utawas, which is the boundary between 
Lower and Upper Canada, about 150 miles above Quebec. 
Vessels of 100 tons may navigate within 70 miles of lake 
Ontario ; but for large vessels the navigation is tedious and 
difficult. This town contains aboit twelve hundred houses, 
and probably six thousand souls ; with six churches, four 
of which are Roman Catholic, and four convents. The 
chief trade is in furs, which are thence sent to Quebec for 
England. The canoes are chiefly employed on the Utawas, 
whence the fur traders proceed across to lake Winnipeg. 

At the grand egress of the river St. Lawrence, on the 
lake Ontario, near what is called the lake of a thousand 
Islands, stands the town of Kingston, remarkable from its 
position as well as the rich settlement in its vicinity. The 
forts of Niagara and Detroit belong to the southern or 
American side of the boundary. The little town of Trois 
Rivieres, or Three Rivers, stands between Quebec and 
Montreal, and is chiefly remarkable for the resort of the 
savages : but though it contains little more than 250 houses, 
it has always been considered as a place of importance. 
Sorelle was founded in 1787 for the American loyalists, but 
contains only one hundred scattered houses : it is at the dis¬ 
tance of fifteen leagues from Montreal towards Quebec ; 
and the chief business is ship building. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The princi¬ 
pal exports are wheat, flour, furs and peltries, with some 
fish ; potash, and American ginseng. The imports are 
spirits, wines, tobacco, sugar, salt, and provisions for the 
troops. Except some linen, and coarse woollen cloths, ma¬ 
nufactured articles are chiefly imported from England. 

Climate and Seasons. The extremes of heat 
and cold are amazing ; the thermometer in July and Au¬ 
gust rising to 96, while in winter the mercury freezes. 
The snow begins in November ; and in January the frost 
is so intense that it is impossible to be out of doors for any 
time without the risk of what is called a frost bite, which 
endangers the limb : and the warm intervals only increase 
the sensation and the jeopardy. But winter, as at Peters¬ 
burg, is the season of amusement; and the sledges, drawn 


416 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 


by one or two horses, afford a pleasant and speedy convey¬ 
ance. Several stoves are placed in the halls of the houses 
whence Hues pass to the apartments ; and there are double 
windows and doors. On going abroad the whole body is 
covered with furs, except the eyes and nose. In May the 
thaw generally comes suddenly, the ice on the river burst¬ 
ing with the noise of cannon ; and its passage to the sea is 
terrific, especially when a pile of ice crashes against a rock. 
Spring is summer: and vegetation instantaneous. The 
month of September is one of the most pleasant. 

Face of the Country. The face of the country is 
generally mountainous and woody ; but there are savannas, 
and plains of great beauty, chiefly towards Upper Canada. 
In the lower province the soil mostly consists of a loose 
blackish earth of ten or twelve inches, incumbent on cold 
clay. This thin mould is however very fertile, and manure 
was seldom or never used by the French settlers ; but of 
late marl has been employed, and is found in considerable 
quantities on the shorts of the river St. Lawrence. A lit¬ 
tle tobacco is cultivated for private use, with many culinary 
vegetables, and considerable crops of grain, wheat being 
reckoned among the exports : a kind of wine is indigenous, 
but the grapes are sour, until touched by the frost. Rasp¬ 
berries are also indigenous ; and there are good currants 
and gooseberries. A great variety of trees is found in the 
forests ; beech, oak, elm, ash, pine, sycamore, chesnut, wal¬ 
nut, Lc. The sugar maple tree also abounds, and the su¬ 
gar is generally used in the country. 

The great river St. Lawrence has been already described 
in the general view of North America. The Utawas is the 
most important of all its tributary streams, issuing from 
various lakes, towards the centre of Canada : its waters are 
of a bright greenish colour, while the St. Lawrence is mud¬ 
dy. Many rivers of smaller consequence flow into the 
river St. Lawrence from the north. The mountains have 
not been examined by any geologist, who could indicate 
their ranges or illustrate their structure. The chief ridge 
seems to be in the northern part of the province, in a direc¬ 
tion S. W. and N. E. giving* source to the many streams 
which flow S. E. while a few pass to Hudson’s Bay. But 
there are many mountains between Quebec and the sea, 
while towards the Utawas only a few are scattered, and to 
the S. W. there are ample plains. The chief singularities 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 4 IT 


in zoology are the moose, the beaver, and some other ani¬ 
mals, for which Mr. Pennant’s Arctic Zoology may be 
consulted. The rein-deer appears in the northern part, 
and the puma and lynx are not unknown. Both the Cana¬ 
das are much infested with rattle-snakes. The humming¬ 
bird is not uncommon at Quebec. The mineralogy is of 
little consequence ; and even iron seems to be rare. There 
are said to be lead mines which produce some silver ; and 
it is probable that copper may be found, as it appears in 
the S. W. of lake Superior. Coal abounds in the island of 
Cape Breton, but this valuable mineral has not been disco¬ 
vered in Canada. The chief natural curiosities seem to be 
the grand lakes, rivers, and cataracts. Among the latter 
the celebrated falls of Niagara are chiefly on the side of 
Upper Canada, the river being there 600 yards wide, and 
the fall 142 feet. A small island lies between the falls : 
and that on the side of the States is 350 yards wide, while 
the height is 163 feet: from the great fall a constant cloud 
ascends, which may sometimes be seen at an incredible dis¬ 
tance ; and the whole scene is truly tremendous. About 2 
miles above these falls, a spring has been discovered that 
emits gas, or inflammable air, which, when confined in a 
pipe, and a flame applied to it, will boil the water in a tea 
kettle in 15 minutes. Whether this may be applied by 
machinery to useful purposes time will determine. 


HEW BRUNSWICK. 


THE ancient province of Nova Scotia was granted by 
James I. to his secretary Sir William Alexander, after¬ 
wards earl of Stirling, It was afterwards seized by the 
French, who seem indeed to have been the first possessors, 
and by whom it was called Acadie ; but it was surrendered 
to England by the treaty of Utrecht 1713. In 1784, it was 
divided into two provinces, New Brunswick, and Nova 
Scotia. In the former there are two considerable bays, 
and a river of some length, called St. John’s ; while that 
of St. Croix divides New Brunswick from the province of 
Main, belonging to the United States. The river of St. 
John is navigable for vessels of fifty tons about sixty miles ; 
and for boats about two hundred ; the tide flowing about 


418 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 


eighty. The fish are salmon, bass, and sturgeon ; and 
the banks enriched by the annual freshets, are often fer¬ 
tile, level, and covered with large trees. This river affords 
a common and near route to Quebec. There are many 
lakes, among which the Grand Lake is 30 miles long, t nd 
about nine broad. The great chain of Apalachian rrn ’ > 
tains parses on the N. VV. of this province, probably ex¬ 
piring at the gulf of St. Lawrence. The capital is Frede- 
rick-town on the river St. John, about ninety miles from 
its estuary. St. Ann’s is almost opposite ; and there are 
some other settlements nearer the bay of Fundi, with a 
fort called Howe. There is a tribe of savages in the vici¬ 
nity called the Marechites, estimated at 140 fighting men. 
The chief products are timber and fish. 


NOVA SCOTIA. 


THIS province is about 300 miles in length, by about 
80 of medial breadth, being inferior in size to New Bruns¬ 
wick. There are several considerable rivers, among which 
that of Annapolis is navigable fifteen miles, for ships of 100 
tons. The bay of Tundi, between New Brunswick and 
Nova Scotia, extends fifty leagues inland ; the ebb and 
flowing of the tide being from forty-five to sixty feet. The 
capital is Halifax, on the bay of Chebucto, well situated for 
the fishery, with communications, by land and water, with 
other parts of this province and New Brunswick. There 
is a good harbour, where a small squadron of ships of war, 
employed in protecting the fishing vessels, is laid up in the 
winter. The town is entrenched with forts of timber, and 
is said to contain fifteen or sixteen thousand inhabitants, a 
superior population to that of Quebec. Shelburn, towards 
the S. W. once contained six hundred families ; Guisbury 
about 250. The harbour of Annapolis is excellent; but it 
is an inconsiderable hamlet. During a great part of the 
year the air is foggy and unhealthy ; and for four or five 
months intensely cold. There are many forests ; and the 
soil is generally thin and barren, though fertile on the 
banks o! the rivers, in grass, hemp, and flax ; but supplies 
of grain are sent from England. The Micmacs, an Indian 
tribe of about 300 fighting men, dwell to the east of Hali- 


) 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 419 

fax. Britain sends to these provinces linen and woollen 
cloths, and other articles to the amount of about 30,000/. 
and receives timber and fish worth about 50,000/. The 
chief fishery is that of cod on the cape Sable-coast. Near 
cape Canco there are remarkable cliffs of white gypsum. 
About twenty-three leagues from that cape is the Isle de 
Sable, or of Sand, consisting wholly of that substance, mix¬ 
ed with white transparent stones, the hills being milk- 
white cones, and some 146 feet above the sea. This atrange 
isle has ponds of fresh water ; with junipers, blueberries, 
and cranberries, and some grass and vetches, which serve 
to support a few horses, cows, and hogs. The bay of 
Fundi presents an infinite variety of picturesque and sub¬ 
lime scenery. 


ISLAND OF CAPE BRETON. 


THIS island is attached to the province of Lower Cana¬ 
da, though divided from Nova Scotia only by a strait of one 
mile in breadth. It is about a hundred miles in length ; 
and according to the French authors was discovered at a 
very early period, about A. D. 1500, by the Normans and 
Bretons, who navigated these seas ; and being supposed a 
part of the continent was called cape Breton. They did 
not however take possession of it till ! 7 13, when they erect¬ 
ed fort Dauphin : the harbour being found difficult Louis- 
burg was built in 1720, the settlers being chiefly from Eu¬ 
rope, as the Acadians, or French of Nova Scotia, did not 
choose to leave that country. In 1758 Cape Breton was 
taken by Gen. Amherst: and has since remained subject 
to the British crown. The climate is cold and foggy, not 
only from the proximity of Newfoundland, but from nu¬ 
merous lakes and forests The soil is mere moss, and has 
been found unfit for agriculture. The fur trade is incon¬ 
siderable. but the fishery very important, this island being 
esteemed the chief seat ; and the value of this trade, while 
in the French possession, was computed at a million ster¬ 
ling. There is a very extensive bed of coal in this island, in 
a horizontal direction, not more than six or eight feet be¬ 
low the surface ; but it has been chiefly used as ballast :^in 


420 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 


one of the pits a fire was kindled by accident, and remains 
unextinguished. 

The island of St. John is at no great distance to the west 
of Cape Breton, being about sixty miles in length by thir¬ 
ty in breadth, and is attached to the province of Nova 
Scotia. The French inhabitants, about four thousand, sur¬ 
rendered, with Cape Breton, in 1758. It is said to be fer¬ 
tile with several streams. A lieutenant-governor resides 
at Charlotte-town ; and the inhabitants of the island are 
computed at five thousand. 

NEWFOUNDLAND. 


THIS island was discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1496, 
who also founded the prior claim of England to the North 
American shores as far south as Florida. 'Phis disco¬ 
very, like that of Columbus and others, was unintentional, 
the design being merely to penetrate to the East Indies. 
The island of Newfoundland is about 320 miles in length 
and breadth, the shape approaching to a triangle. It seems 
to be rather hilly than mountainous, with woods of birch, 
small pine, and fir, yet on the south-west side there are 
lofty head-lands. The country has scarcely been penetrat¬ 
ed above thirty miles ; but there are numerous ponds and 
morasses, with some dry barrens. The great fishery on 
the banks of Newfoundland begins about the 10th of May, 
and continues till the end of September. The cod is either 
dried for the Mediterranean, or barrelled up in a pickle of 
salt, for the English market. These banks and the island 
are environed with constant fog, or snow and sleet; the 
former supposed by some to be occasioned by the superior 
warmth of the gulf stream from the West Indies. The 
fishery is computed to yield about 300,000/. a year, from 
the cod sold in the Catholic countries. The island of 
Newfoundland, after many disputes with the French, was 
ceded to England 1731, the French having permission to 
dry their nets on the northern shores; and in 1763 it was 
stipulated that they might fish in the gulf of St. Lawrence ; 
and the small isles of St. Pierre and Miquelon were ceded 
to them. The French, by the treaty 1783, were to enjoy 


BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 421 


their fisheries on the northern and western coasts, the in¬ 
habitants of the United States having the same privileges 
as before their independence ; and the preliminaries of Oc¬ 
tober 1801, confirm the privileges granted to the French. 

The chief towns are St. John in the S. E. with Placen¬ 
tia in the south, and Bonavista in the east; but not above 
a thousand families remain during the winter. In the 
spring a small squadron is sent to protect the fisheries and 
settlements, the admiral being also governor of the island, 
its sole consequence depending on the fishery ; and there 
are two lieutenant governors, one at St. John’s, another at 
Placentia. 

These dreary shores are strongly contrasted by the Ber¬ 
mudas or Sommer Islands, lying almost at an equal dis¬ 
tance between Nova Scotia and the West Indies; but as 
they are nearer to the coast of Carolina than to any other 
land, it seems more proper to arrange them here than under 
any other division. 


THE BERMUDAS, OR SOMMER ISLANDS. 


THEY are four in number, and were discovered by the 
Spaniards under John Bermudas, in 15 27 ; but being after¬ 
wards neglected by them, they were again disclosed by the 
shipwreck of Sir George Sommer in 1 609 : which event 
seems to have induced Shakespear to describe them as 
ever -vexed, with storms. They are situated in 32° N. lat. 
and 65° W. long, from London, about 300 leagues from 
Carolina. Another poet, Waller, who resided there some 
time, on his being condemned for a plot against the par¬ 
liament in 1643, describes them in very different colours, as 
enjoying a perpetual spring. In !725 the benevolent and 
eccentric bishop Berkley proposed to erect a college in 
these islands for the conversion of the savage Americans ! 
Of these little islands the chief is that called St. George, 
with a capital town of the same name, containing about five 
hundred, houses, built of a soft free-stone, the inhabitants 
being about three thousand, and those of all the isles per¬ 
haps about ten thousand. There is a governor, council, 
and general assembly ; the religion being that of the 

n n 


422 BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN N. AMERICA. 


church of England. The people are chiefly occupied in 
building light ships of their cedars, in which they trade tt 
North America and the West Indies. It would appea 
that these remote isles were uninhabited when settled V 
the English. 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 


THE name and origin of the United States of America 
are too recent to need any elucidation. It is universally 
known that they were British colonies, planted by the Bri¬ 
tish government at several periods, and protected by it till 
the year 1774 ; when they confederated to resist the taxa¬ 
tion of Parliament, and, failing to obtain an immunity by 
petition, remonstrance, and a suspension of trade, declared 
themselves sovereign and independent states on the 4th of 
July, 1776. 

Such a revolution was to be expected in the natural 
course of events. After the expulsion of the French from 
Canada, the colonies had progressed rapidly in commerce, 
wealth and population, and had illy brooked the legislative 
restrictions of a distant metropolis, long before they com¬ 
bined to oppose them. The interest of the American 
merchant and the commercial regulations of the English 
parliament, had been at variance from a very early period. 
But whether the crisis was hastened by the intrigues of am¬ 
bitious men on both sides of the Atlantic, or by the discovery 
of a regular system in the parent to abridge the just liber¬ 
ties of her children, is a question that has been agitated with 
great warmth on both sides, and is best left to the impartial 
decision of posterity. Nothing, however, can be more cer¬ 
tain than that, next to internal harmony, it is of the first 
importance to both countries to cultivate peace and amity 
by mutual justice and good faith, and to guard strictly 
against the machinations of their common enemy, who will 
always endeavour to destroy that good understanding which 
opposes a perpetual bar to his ambitious projects. 

Situation and Extent/ When the war of in¬ 
dependence was closed by a definitive treaty of peace, be¬ 
tween the King of Great Britain and the United States of 
America, on the 3d of September 1783, the boundaries of 




424 


UNITED STATES. 


these Ptates were declared to extend from the river St. 
Croix in the bay of fundi, and an ideal line from its souice, 
to the high lands which divide the waters running into the 
river St. Lawrence from those that fall into the Atlantic 
ocean : along those highlands to the north westernmost head 
of Connecticut river, and down the middle of that river to 
the 45th degree of north latitude : thence by a due west 
line to the river Cataraqui ; along said river till it unites 
with lake Ontario, and by an ideal line running through 
the middle of that lake, of lakes Erie and Superior to the 
lake of the Woods, called by the French lac chi bois : thence 
by a west line from the north westernmost corner of this 
lake to the head waters of the Mississippi,* and down the 
middle of the Mississippi, to the 31st degree of north lati¬ 
tude, where it meets the northern boundary of West Flo¬ 
rida ; thence by a line nearly due east to the head of St. 
Mary’s river, and down the middle of said river to the 
Atlantic ocean ; including all the islands that lie within 
twenty leagues of the shores of the United States. 

Original Population. The original population of 
this extensive and flourishing country, consisted of nume¬ 
rous rude and warlike Indian tribes, whose denominations 
and memory are almost extinct. An acquaintance with 
Europeans has ever been baneful to uncivilized commu¬ 
nities in all parts of the globe. It is supposed that there 
are hardly 40,000 of this devoted race remaining, with¬ 
in the extensive territories of the United States. The 
Indians soon discovered a fondness for spirituous liquors, 
with which unprincipled traders were too ready to supply 
them ; by the excessive use of these, their natural fero¬ 
city was increased, their passions inflamed, their best 
principles perverted, and by this mean, together with the 
introduction of diseases before unknown, their lives were 

* In this demarkation there appears some error, for late discoveries 
have proved that a western line from the lake of the Woods would 
strike no part ot the river Mississippi; of course this portion of the 
western limits remains undefined. 

The N. W. corner of the lake of the Woods is in lat. 49° 37’ N. 
long. 94° 31’ W. 

N' rthernmost branch of Mississippi, at its source is in 47° 38’ N. 
long. 96 Q 6' W, 

Northern herd of the Missouri is in 47° 32’ N. long. 101° 25’ W 
from this it bends to the south of west. 


UNITED STATES. 


425 


shortened, and their numbers rapidly reduced. The few 
who escaped from these merciless destroyers, retired prin¬ 
cipally beyond the western lakes.—The European colonies 
established in this country, were planted at different pe¬ 
riods, mostly by emigrants from the British islands, as will 
be more fully explained under the heads of the several 
States where they first settled. 

Memorable Events. Among the chief histori¬ 
cal events of the United States must be classed their re¬ 
spective origins, which we shall explain hereafter ; together 
with the leading occurrences in that contest which termi¬ 
nated in the independence of the United States. 

1. The Stamp a«t passed in 17 65, is considered as the 
first attempt to raise a supply of British revenue from North 
America ; it being left to the colonies, at the same time, 
and they were requested to raise 100,000/. sterling, in any 
other mode more agreeable to themselves; but opposition 
being given to this, and every other mode but free-will gifts 
to the crown, the act was repealed in the year following. 

2. In 1768. Custom house boat patrolled through the 
streets of Boston, and burnt in triumph : the revenue of¬ 
ficers being obliged to fly for safety on board the Romney 
man of war. 

3. Similar attempts to raise a revenue, in a more indi¬ 
rect manner, were alike unsuccessful, and in 1770, all the 
duties except three pence a pound on tea were taken ofi by 
act of Parliament. 

4. The King’s troops attacked while doing duty on 
guard, by an armed mob, on March 5, 1770 : the troops 
fired and killed five of the assailants, for which they were 
tried and acquitted. 

5. 1773. The armed schooner Gaspie, stationed off 
Rhode Island, was burnt by the Americans. In this year 
Governor Hutchinson’s private letters to his friends in 
England, came into possession of Dr. franklin, by some 
mysterious means, and were sent by him to the general 
Court at Boston ; where they were published, and had a 
great effi cl in inflaming the public mind. 

6. The tea sent by the East India Company to the port 
of Boston was thrown into the bay. 1 his led to what is 
called the Boston Port Bill, March 1774 and the act for 
altering the government of Massachusetts Bay : to last till 

n 2 


426 


UNITED STATES 


the town of Boston agreed to make a just restitution for 
the tea destroyed. 

7. Deputies met at Philadelphia, 26th October, 1774, 
constituting the first congress : when they published a du¬ 
tiful address to the king, and another address to the people 
of Canada, inviting them to revolt. 

8. Other acts of the British parliament, 1775, inflamed 
the discontents, and the civil war commenced with a skir¬ 
mish between the British troops and American militia at 
Lexington. The battle of Bunker’s Hill, or rather Breed’s 
Hill, was fought on the 17th June, 1775. 

9. On the 4th of July, 1776, the American congress 
published their solemn declaration of independence ; and 
this manifesto has been republished annually ever since, 
contrary to the custom of all civilized nations, as well as 
the general good sense of the American citizens. 

10. On the 30th January, 1778, the king of France con¬ 
cluded a treaty with the United States, which expired with 
him on the scaffold, the 2 1st January, 1793. 

1 1. The treaty of peace, 30th November, 1 782, by which 
the independence of the United States w r as solemnly ac¬ 
knowledged, after a struggle of seven years. 

12. The first constitution of the United States having 
been found imperfect, a new plan was submitted to the se¬ 
veral states, and received their approbation. On the 30th 
of April 1789, George Washington was inaugurated first 
president of the United States. The resignation and death 
of that illustrious man—the short contest with the venal 
directory of France—the removal of the seat of govern¬ 
ment to Washington in the district of Columbia—and the 
purchase of Louisiana, are incidents which are fresh in the 
memory of every reader. 

Religion. The constitution of the United States 
is entirely silent on the subject of religion. Every man is 
admissible to office, provided he is well qualified in all 
other respects : yet the obligations of the Christian religion 
seem to be acknowledged, though indirectly, by the oath 
the President is required to take on the holy evangelists, at 
the time of his inauguration, as well as by the annual ap¬ 
pointment of a chaplain to read prayers before each house 
of congress. In the constitutions of the individual states 
there is not the same latitude, as we shall notice when we 
come to treat of them separately.—It may be safe to as¬ 
sert that of all the various denominations in the United 


UNITED STATES. 


42 7 


States, the Congregationalists and Presbyterians are much 
the most numerous. 

Government and Laws. The government of the 
United States is a representative republic, retaining as 
much of the form and spirit of the English constitution, as 
is consistent with the avowed rights of the people. Those 
two essential securities to individuals in their persons, and 
their property, the habeas corpus act, and trial by jury are 
preserved. Effectual measures are taken to remove what 
was formerly a fruitful source of animosity and dissension 
among the colonies, the undefined limits of their respective 
territories, as every state has renounced the right of deciding 
upon its own claims, and has agreed to submit them to the 
final decision of congress. 

By the constitution of 1789, the government is vested in 
a president and two legislative branches. The president 
is chosen for the term of four years, and is re-eligible. His 
salary is 25,000 dollars per annum, which cannot be varied 
< during the term of his presidentship. He must be a native 
citizen, or adopted at the date of the constitution, thirty-five 
years of age, and have resided in the United States four¬ 
teen years preceding his election. The senate, or superior 
branch, consists of two senators from each state, chosen 
every six years, with a biennial rotation of one third—The 
house of representatives, or second branch, is elected every 
second year, and is not to contain more than 200 members, 
each representing, according to the progress of population 
from 33,000 to 50,000 inhabitants—Once in four years a 
vice-president is also chosen, who is always president of the 
senate, but has no vote, except when there is an equality ; 
and he executes the office of first executive magistrate, in 
case of a vacancy by death or otherwise. The present 
congress consists of 36 senators^and 144 representatives. 

No specific portion of property, whether real or personal, 
no religious test whatever is required in the qualification 
of a representative, a senator, the vice-president, or even 
the president, by any article of the constitution, or any law 
of the United States. 

The president is ex officio, commander in chief of the 
army and navy of the United States, as well as of all the 
militia when called into actual service. He has power to 
grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United 
States, except in cases of impeachment. With the advice 


428 


UNITED STATES. 


and consent of the senate he has power to 'make treaties, 
but the concurrence of two thirds of the senate present is 
necessary to render such act valid. He nominates, and 
with the concurrence of the senate, he appoints ambassa¬ 
dors, consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other 
officers not otherwise appointed by the constitution. He 
may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or 
either of them. He receives ambassadors and other public 
ministers, and is directed to take care to have the laws 
faithfully executed. His negative on laws is only suspen¬ 
sive : two thirds of both houses concurring have full au¬ 
thority to enact laws without his consent. 

The congress (consisting of senate and representatives 
who are obliged to meet onee a year) has the power to im¬ 
pose and collect taxes, imposts and excises ; to pay the 
debts, and to defray the contingent expences of govern¬ 
ment ; to borrow money on the credit of the United States; 
to regulate commerce ; to coin money ; to regulate the 
value thereof and of foreign coin ; to fix the standard of 
weights and measures; to constitute tribunals inferior to the 
supreme court ; to declare war ; grant letters of mark and 
reprisals ; to raise and support armies ; to provide and 
maintain a navy ; but money must be applied to the specific 
purpose for which it is appropriated by law, and no appro¬ 
priation for military pui poses shall be for longer term than 
two years 

Each particular state is debarred from entering into any 
treaty, or alliance with any foreign nation ; coining money, 
or laying duties on imports or exports, but what may be 
absolutely necessar y, and the nett produce of such duties 
shall be for the use of the general treasury, and subject to 
the revision and control of congress.—All the judiciary 
officers of the United States are appointed by the president; 
they hold their commissions duiing good behaviour ; and 
their salaries are unalterable while they continue in office. 

Tire judiciary powers extend to all cases in law and equi¬ 
ty, arising from the constitution and the laws of the United 
Stales ; to treatise with foreign nations, to their ambassa¬ 
dors and puolic ministers ; to cases of admiralty and ma i- 
time jurisdiction ; to disputes between two or more states; 
between citizens of different st ites, or of the same state 
claiming under different states—and to all cases where the 
United States are a party. The laws generally correspond 


UNITED STATES. 


429 


with those of England, and English reports are qpoted as 
good authority in almost all cases. The stated courts con¬ 
sist of a supreme court which is held twice a year at the 
seat of government ; a district court held four times a year 
in each state ; and circuit courts, divided into eastern, mid¬ 
dle, and southern, where one of the associate judges of the 
supreme court always presides. 

Divisions, Population* Army, Navy, and Mili¬ 
tia. 1 he United States are generally classed under 
three grand divisions, viz. New England, or the Northern 
States, comprising Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachu- 
sets, (including the District of Maine,) Rhode Island, and 
Connecticut; the Middle States, New York, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Okio ; and the Southern 
States, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, 
South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennesee. Besides which, 
there is an extensive Northwestern Territory, denominated 
Indiana ; a Southern Territory on the Mississippi; and the 
newly acquired Province of Louisiana which is in itself an 
empire : of each of these we shall give as full an account 
as our narrow limits will permit. 

The population of these extensive territories estimated 
by order of Congress in 1790, was found to be 3,939,326, 
exclusive of the inhabitants N’ W. of the Ohio, supposed 
to be 20 000. It is inferred that the number is doubled 
every 28 1-3 years. By the census of 1800, it had increas¬ 
ed to 5,305.666, of whom one fifth were blacks or mula- 
toes, and about 900,000 slaves. The population is about 
5 1-3 persons to a mile square, and about 7 1-6 acres of im¬ 
proved land to a person. About four fifths of the inhabitants 
may be termed agriculturists. The families may be esti¬ 
mated about 665,000. The males out number females by 
34, l 46. Those of 1 6 years and upwards exceed the younger 
moiety by 40,000 ; and those of 4 5 years and upwards are 
to the whole population as 12 to a hundred. 

A small military force is maintained, consisting of two 
regiments of artillerv, four of infantry, one of marines, and 
two companies of dismounted cavalry, for the defence of 
the frontiers. Bat a standing army is deemed i icompa- 
tible with the republican government; and the strength of 
the states is computed from the militia, which may be 
stated at 800,000 ; which is a number sufficiently formidable 


430 


UNITED STATES. 


to subdue the whole continent, and to set foreign invasion 
at defiance. 

N avy. The navy of the United States is still of 
little consequence, though a few ships were equipped dur¬ 
ing the recent short dispute with France. In the course 
of a century or two, it is probable that the maritime spirit 
of their progenitors will be displayed, and that the Ame¬ 
rican fleet will rival any in Europe. At present it consists 
of six or eight frigates, and three or four sloops. 

Revenues and Expenditures. The revenue 
of the United States is derived principally from duties on 
imported merchandise and tonage, which at a medium 
are near 20 per cent, ad valorem, and amount to between 
twelve and thirteen millions of dollars per annum. The 
annual expenditure, inclusive of interest on the national 
debt, is between eleven and twelve millions. The debts 
domestic and foreign may be stated at 88,000,000 dollars, 
and the sinking fund about 9 millions. The aggregate 
value of goods consumed in the United States (the average 
of 6 years from 1793—8) about fifty millions of dollars, all 
of which paid duties. The number of pleasure carriages 
which paid duties in 1801, were 23,340, yielding a reve¬ 
nue of 77,371 dollars, but this duty has ceased, and been 
supplied by an extra impost on goods imported. 

Political Importance. The political impor¬ 
tance of the United States, though not under-rated by 
themselves, seems not to have risen to its due value with 
foreign nations. Whether this error be owing to a gene¬ 
ral ignorance of the real strength and importance of these 
states, or a persuasion that nothing can drive them from 
the lucrative pursuits of the carrying trade, is uncertain. 
But, on either supposition, it is natural, though extreme¬ 
ly unjust, for all the belligerent powers to plunder us, 
in their turns, of a part of those riches that flow from 
their calamities. They cannot view with indifference a na¬ 
tion of traders that discover no sympathy in the con¬ 
vulsions of a whole continent, no anxiety about the suffer¬ 
ings of other nations, as long as those calamities open new. 
channels of commerce, and swell the revenues of the state. 
But if we should ever rise in our politics above this Dutch 
level, and assume that rank among the nations which 
1 rovidence has qualified us to fill, we may become in 
some measure the umpire of European disputes ; and 


UNITED STATES. 


43 i 


often prevent the sword being drawn by European nations, 
those especially who have colonies on or near the Ameri¬ 
can shores. When considered in this light, the political 
importance of the United States has a dignity and pre-emi¬ 
nence superior to any other nation since the days of the 
Roman republic. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and do¬ 
mestic economy of the United States, differ only in a few 
trifling shades from those of Great Britain : for although 
the population is composed by adventurers from every na¬ 
tion in Europe, the original settlers being principally En¬ 
glish, to their customs and manners, as well as laws and 
language, successive emigrants have conformed in a great 
degree. In diet and dress one is a copy of the other, nor 
do they differ much in their amusements. Travellers have 
observed a want of urbanity, particularly in Philadelphia ; 
and in all the capital cities, an eager pursuit of wealth, by 
adventurous speculations in commerce, by land-jobbing, 
banks, insurance offices, and lotteries. In general the com¬ 
mon people, and particularly the liberated Blacks, shew 
their love of liberty by a surliness of behaviour, ancl a con¬ 
tempt for those civilities, and that subordination, which are 
necessary in all well ordered communities. The ever-va¬ 
rying fashions of dress are universally borrowed from En¬ 
gland, and are adopted sooner by the peasantry than per¬ 
haps in any other country. The multiplication of inns, 
taverns, and dram shops, is an obvious national evil that 
calls loudly for legislative interference ; for in no country 
are they more numerous, or more universally baneful. 
Although education is not neglected, for schools are spread 
every where through the well settled parts of the country, 
the domestic regulation of the manners of children and 
youth is on a very bad footing. 

Language. On the termination of the war with 
England, a few rancorous revolutionists proposed the adop¬ 
tion of a new language : the English however prevails and 
is cultivated with great assiduity in all the principal cities 
and towns, and must in the course of a century or two be 
spread over a greater portion of the globe than any other 
that ever existed. All the classical authors in the English 
language have been reprinted in America, many of them 
have passed through several editions, some with great ele¬ 
gance and correctness. Many writers of conspicuous 


432 


UNITED STATES. 


merit have arisen in the United States. Literary socie¬ 
ties, publish their transactions, while magazines, and 
news-papers without number, contribute to the diffusion of 
useful science. If our liberties perish, it will not be by 
“ want of knowledge," as the term is commonly understood. 

Seminaries of Learning. Education seems to 
attract the attention of states as well as individuals. In 
short, grammar schools, academies, colleges and univer¬ 
sities, are founded in every district of the union ; those of 
New England, New York, and Philadelphia, are the most 
distinguished ; but of these seminaries, we shall take more 
particular notice, under the heads of the several states 
where they are instituted. 

Cities and Towns. As a short description of the 
principal cities and towns, will fall more properly under 
the geography of the several states to which they belong, 
we shall confine ourselves in this place to a brief sketch of 
the plan and situation of Washington, the present seat 
of the Federal government. This intended capital of the 
American empire, is situated at the confluence of the river 
Potomac, and what is called the Eastern branch, in lat. 
38° 53* north. In point of salubrity the situation is un¬ 
exceptionable ; the soil is dry, and furnished with several 
springs of excellent water. The grand avenues, agreeably 
to the plan, are from 120 to 160 feet wide, and the other 
streets from 90 to 110 : in all a sufficient space is allotted 
for foot passengers, on both sides of the streets. The ca- 
pitol designed for the reception of Congress, and the Pre¬ 
sident’s House, are on considerable eminences, about one 
mile apart, but neither of them is completed. In short, 
almost all remains to be done : and as the city has very 
little in itself, or its vicinity, to invite the industrious me¬ 
chanic, or the man of commercial enterprise ; as the navi¬ 
gation to it is long and tedious ; and it has to contend with 
many rivals more happily situated; its advances in population 
must be very slow. Already have proposals been made, on 
the floor of Congress, to adjourn their sessions to some 
more convenient place. 

Commerce and Manufactures. As the princi¬ 
pal commercial states of Europe have been engaged, near 
one half the time, since the peace of 1783, in a destructive 
war, it has rendered American produce and shipping neces¬ 
sary to all of them, by which the trade of this country has 


UNITED STATES. 


433 


swelled much beyond its natural bounds. And, while 
the exports of domestic produce has not increased, com - 
multibus annis, in the ratio of our population, the grand 
total of our foreign commerce far exceeds that propor¬ 
tion ; though more than one halt of it consist of foreign 
meichandise imported and reshipped. This, however, 
would have left a handsome profit, to use a mercantile 
phrase, had we dealt only witii honest people who pay their 
debts, and escaped spoliations at sea.—In the year 1798, 
our imports^ we re estimated at 60,000,000 of dollars, which 
perhaps is a medial rate, and our exports at 6^,000,000 
(five eighths of both being to and from British ports ) 
In 1799 and 1800, our exports to Great Britain amount¬ 
ed to 69,442,321 dollars, to F ranee 16,425,584 dollars. 
In 1800, imports from Great Britain were 31,107,834, 
from France only 87,107 dollars. What a disparity in the 
relative importance of the two countries ! Indeed, if the 
American merchant could obtain only 87,107 dollars, in re¬ 
turns for 16,425,584, it were better to close the account en¬ 
tirely till a change of times. But we have been so much in 
the habit of pouring millions into the laps of these French¬ 
men, that we begin to think lightly of it, and they to think 
still less. The tonnage of American shipping is estimated 
at 868,000 tons, and the seamen at 63,000. The American 
manufactures will come more regularly under the heads of 
the respective states. 

Climate and Seasons. A country extending 
through 15 degrees of latitude, and more than one thousand 
miles along the sea coast ; with various degrees of eleva¬ 
tion from the sea, as well as distances from the frozen re¬ 
gions of the north ; must vary greatly in the temperature of 
its air. But there is one trait in the character of our cli¬ 
mates, for which all are more or less remarkable ; I mean 
a sudden transition from heat to cold, and the contrary, 
which produces, or aggravates many of the American dis¬ 
eases. The wind from the northwest is always cold, some¬ 
times in the extreme ; so as to sink the mercury in Faren- 
heit’s thermometer 27° below 0. In the plains, on the east 
of the Apalachian mountains, the summer heats are often 
immoderate. At Savanna in Georgia, the mercury has 
been known to rise in the shade as high as 102°, and to re¬ 
main for many days at 98°. Near the mountains on the 
eastern side, and more on the western, the climate is more 

o o 




434 . 


UNITED STATES. 


temperate, even in the southern States. In the Atlantic 
States, a N. E. wind is commonly attended with rain, while 
on the west of the mountains a S. W. has that effect. In 
the northern States, the winters are long and tedious, with 
a clear and salutary air ; in the middle States, not so long, 
but more diversified with alternate frosts and rains ; in the 
southern, short and mild, snow seldom remaining more 
than a day or two. But in all, the winters vary considera¬ 
bly : out of four, one may justly be termed severe, when 
most of the great rivers in the middle and northern dis¬ 
tricts, are crossed on the ice. It may be asserted that the 
winters in general are much colder in the United territories 
than they are in correspondent latitudes of Europe. 

Face of the Country. If a person could take a 
birds-eye view of the whole area of the United States, he 
would be apt to describe it as an immeasurable forest, diver¬ 
sified with a few spots of cleared land, hardly discernable in 
the general perspective. In the middle ground he would 
behold a vast range of mountains, spreading its ramifica¬ 
tions variously, but inclining principally to a parallel with 
the sea coast, and giving rise to numerous large rivers that 
wind through the wilderness, towards the Atlantic, on one 
side, and on the other, towards the Mississippi and western 
lakes. But on the sea coast he would discern some larger 
openings, the seats of populous towns, and cultivated farms; 
and in the western regions, extensive inland seas, and bound¬ 
less savannas or prairies, the primeval haunts of deers and 
buffaloes. This American territory embraces a great va¬ 
riety of soils, which may be divided into three distinct heads 
or classifications. The first extending from fifty to one 
hundred miles from the coast, and from the head of Chesa- 
peak to the confines of Florida, is generally light and sandy, 
with an exception of the banks and estuaries of the rivers, 
and is covered with pines, cedars, and other resinous trees. 
The second embraces the greater part of Pennsylvania, 
the higher districts of Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas, 
and Georgia, as well as the greater part of the Western 
States and territory, and is covered with strong timber, 
such as oak, ash, maple, hickory, locust, walnut, the horse 
chesnut and sumac, indicative of a soil rich and productive. 
The third portion, of which there is but an inconsiderable 
strip within our limits, is of a sterile quality, and com¬ 
prises a small part of New York and the New England 


UNITED ST AT ES. 


435 

States, advancing into Canada, and is distinguished by its 
evergreens of pine, fir, cedar, cypress, kc. 

. SoiL AND Agriculture. The soil, though of 
various descriptions, is generally fertile enough to repay 
the farmer for his labour; in some places it is extremely 
*;ch and productive, being a deep black mould ; in others, 
a brown loamy earth, mixed with clay ; and towards the 
sea shore, sandy and fittest for rye and Indian corn. 
I nere are marshes of considerable extent along the seve¬ 
ral livers, which tne hand of industry is every year reclaim¬ 
ing from the waters, and converting into rich meadows. 
But the land in the middle states is much broken by ranges 
of mountains.— The farmer is improving every year in the 
science of agriculture, and by the cultivation of clover, and 
a* proper rotation of crops, recovering his worn out fields 
fiom their unproductive state.—’Among the numerous pro¬ 
ducts are wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, oats, beans, pease, 
potatoes, and Indian corn.—In Carolina and Oeorgia rice, 
cotton, indigo, and tobacco, are cultivated with great success. 
Turnips are raised only for culinary purposes ; the Ame¬ 
rican farmer is not yet acquainted with the use of this ve¬ 
getable in feeding cattle.—Orchards are numerous, and 
cyder a favourite liquor, but from some cause, whether ig¬ 
norance or negligence, or a change in the climate, apple 
and peach orchards are less productive than they formerly 
were. The latter are perishing annually by the devasta¬ 
tions of a grub which attacks the roots. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
botany of the United States, including the Flondas, or in 
other words, of the whole region extending eastward from 
the Mississippi to the ocean, and southward from the river 
St. Lawrence with its lakes to the gulf of Mexico, may be 
divided into those vegetables which are common to the 
whole country, and those that occupy only particular parts. 

The most generally diffused species among the timber 
trees are, the willow-leaved oak growing in the swamps ; 
the chesnut oak, which in the southern states attains an 
enormous size, and is almost as valuable for its sweet fari¬ 
naceous acorns as for its wood ; the white oak ; the red and 
the black. Next to these in rank are the walnut, and the 
hickory. The tulip tree and sassafras laurel, more impa¬ 
tient of cold than the preceding, appear as shrubs on the 
Canadian ^orders, rise into trees in the midland states, 


436 


UNITED STATES. 


and on the warm banks of the Altamaha attain the full per¬ 
fection of stateliness and beauty. The sugar maple, on 
the contrary, is seen only on the northern sides of the hills 
in the southern states, and increases both in size and fre¬ 
quency in the more bracing climate of Pennsylvania. New 
York, and Vermont. The sweet gum tree, the iron wood, 
the American elm, the poplar, and the taccamahacca, ap¬ 
pear in every state in the Union where the soil is suitable, 
wit! out being much affected by variety of climate. The 
light sandy tracts, both wet and dry, are principally inha¬ 
bited by the important and useful family of pines; of these 
the chief species are the Pennsylvanian fir, the common 
and the hemlock spruce fir; the yellow, the white, and 
the Weymouth pine ; and the larch : nearly allied to which 
are the arbor vitre, and the red cedar of America. The 
smaller trees and shrubs that are dispersed in all parts of 
the United States, among a multitude of others, consist 
of the following : the fringe tree, the red-maple, the su¬ 
mach and poison oak, the red mulberry, the persimmon 
plum, and the triple-thorned acacia. 

The mountainous ridges are not sufficiently high to be 
rich in alpine plants ; their climate however is sensibly 
cooler than that of the plains, on which account those of 
the south are inhabited by the vegetables of Pennsylvania 
and the northern states, while the highlands of these abound 
in the plants of Canada. 

But the glories of the American flora are principally con¬ 
fined to the back parts of Virginia, the southern and the 
western states ; it is here that the unfading verdure of the 
wide savannas, the solemn magnificence of the primeval 
forests, and the wild exuberance of the steaming swamps, 
offer to the astonished admiration of the botanist every thing 
that by colour, by fragance, and by form, can delight the 
senses and fix the attention. 

The low ridges of calcareous soil running parallel with 
the rivers, and rising from the level savannas into exten¬ 
sive lawns and swelling hills, are generally covered with 
open or entangled woods, except where they have been 
converted into tillage by the industry of the inhabitants. In 
these rich tracts grows the lofty palmetto, the evergreen 
oak, the sweet bay, the btnzoe laurel, the common laurel, 
the wide shading broom pine, and the red cedar. The 
straight silvery columns of the papaw fig, rising to the 


UNITED STATES. 


437 


height of twenty feet, and crowned by a canopy of broad 
sinuated leaves, form a striking feature in this delicious 
scenery, while the golden fruit and fragrant blossoms of 
the orange, here realize the ancient traditions of the groves 
of the Hesperides. Superior however to all these is the 
towering magnificence of the great magnolia: in this rich 
marley soil it rises above a hundred feet, with a perfectly 
erect trunk, supporting a shady conical head of dark green 
foliage : from the centre of the coronets of leaves that ter¬ 
minate the branches expands a large rose-shaped blossom 
of pure white, which is succeeded by a crimson cone con¬ 
taining the seeds of a beautiful coral red colour ; and these 
falling from their cells remain for several days suspended 
from the seed-vessel by a silky thread, six inches or more 
in length ; so that whether in this state or in blossom it is 
second to none for grandeur and beauty. 

I he level plains by the sides of rivers, and therefore ge¬ 
nerally in a flooded state during the whole rainy season, 
are called savannas. 1 he trees that grow upon them are 
of the aquatic kind, particularly the beaver tree, and Ame¬ 
rican olive ; these are generally either single or grouped 
together into small open groves, while the larger part of 
the meadow is overgrown with long succulent herbage, in¬ 
termixed with shrubs and plants. 

T. he swamps are at ah times, even in the height of sum¬ 
mer. for the most part under water, and are distinguished 
from the rest of the country by the crowded stems of the 
cane, the light foliage of the tupelo tree, the taccama- 
hacca, and the white cedar? this last is perhaps the most 
picturesque tree in all America ; four or five enormous 
buttresses or rude pillars rise from the ground, and unite 
a kind of arch at the height of about seven feet, and from, 
this centre there springs a straight column eighty or nine¬ 
ty feet high, without a branch : it then spreads into a flat 
umbrell i-shaped top, covered with finely divided leaves of 
the most delicate green. This platform is the secure abode 
of the eagle and the crane ; and the oily seeds contained in 
its cones are the favourite repast of the paroquets that are 
constantly fluttering around. 

The domestic zoology of the United States nearly cor¬ 
responds with that of the parent country, with some few 
shades of difference in size and colour. Among the larger 
wild animals may be mentioned the bison, large herds of 

o o 2 





UNITED STATES. 


438 

which used to be seen near the Mississippi, and they were 
once very numerous in the western parts of Virginia and 
Pennsylvania. The musk bull and cow only appear in the 
more western regions, beyond the Mississippi. Among 
the animals now lost is classed the mammoth, whose enor¬ 
mous bones are particularly found near the salt springs 
upon the Ohio. The moose deer are become extremely 
rare, and will probably in no long time be utterly extirpat¬ 
ed, as the wolf and boar have been in Britain. The Ame¬ 
rican stag rather exceeds the European in size, and is seen 
in great numbers feeding in the rich savannas of the Mis¬ 
souri and Mississippi, where there are also herds of that 
kind called the Virginian deer. 

Bears, wolves, and foxes are found in most of the States, 
together with a few rapacious animals of the cat kind, im¬ 
properly called panthers and tigers. 

The beaver is well known from the fur, and the singu¬ 
lar formation of his cabin, built in ponds for the sake of 
security. This industrious animal is now rare in any of 
the ancient States, and is somewhat imitated by the musk 
rat, who likewise builds his hut in shallow-streams. Some 
kinds of monkeys are said to be found in the southern states. 
The morse or sea cow, and the seal, used to frequent the 
northern shores ; and the manati, common in South Ame¬ 
rica, is said sometimes to appear on the southern coasts. 

Among the birds there at e many kinds of eagles, vul¬ 
tures, owls; and numerous sorts called by European 
names, though generally of distinct species. The turkey 
is peculiar to America, and abounds in the north. They 
were brought from Mexico to Spain, and from Spain to 
England about i524 ; the African poultry, or meleagrides 
of more ancient authors, being Guinea fowls. Virginia 
abounds with beautiful birds, and it may be conceived that 
vast varieties of aquatic birds crowd the numerous lakes and 
rivers, the largest being the wild swan, which sometimes 
we ; ghs thirty-six pounds. Some of the frogs are of re¬ 
markable size ; and the tortoise or turtle, supplies a deli¬ 
cious food, while the alligator is frequent in the southern 
rivers. Of serpents the various kinds found in the unit¬ 
ed territories, Virginia, in particular, are very numerous. 
The rattlesnake is the largest, being from four to six feet 
in length, and is one of the most dreaded. Among the fish 
are most of those which are esteemed in Europe ; and of 


UNITED STATES. 


439 


those that are peculiar may be mentioned a large kind of 
white trout found in the lakes, of rock, perch, and cat fish 
in the western rivers. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of the United States 
will not supply an extensive theme, as few substances 
are found except those which are indeed the most pre¬ 
cious to industry, iron and coal. Iron ore is found in great 
abundance in Massachusetts, where there are considerable 
manufactures. Copper ore also appears in that province. 
In Rhode Island there are mines of iron and copper. On 
the banks of the Connecticut is a lead mine, but too expen¬ 
sive to work ; and zinc is also found, with talc, and crys¬ 
tals of various colours. At Philipsburg in New York is a 
silver mine ; and lead, zinc, and manganese, with cop¬ 
per and coal. Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Maryland 
abound in iron ore : they possess also coal, and copper 
mines. Virginia is celebrated for various minerals. There 
are lead mines which yield from fifty to eighty pounds from 
one hundred of ore : copper and black lead are also found : 
and there is abundance of excellent coal on both sides of 
James River, said to have been discovered by a boy in pur¬ 
suit of cray fish. Coal also abounds towards the Missis¬ 
sippi and Ohio ; and at Pittsburgh is of superior quality: 
but this valuable mineral is chiefly worked in Virginia, 
where the beds seem very extensive. Limestone is com¬ 
mon in most of the States, and in some of them there are 
rich veins of marble of various descriptions. Amethysts, 
or violet-coloured crystals, are also found in Virginia. 
North Carolina is crossed by a long ridge of limestone, in a 
south-westerly direction, but no minerals seem to have been 
discovered. In the territory south of the Ohio, what is 
called stone coal is found in the Cumberland mountains, or 
great Laurel ridge, and there are salt springs through 
most of the western country. In South Carolina there 
are said to be appearances of silver and lead, with abun¬ 
dance of iron ore, and quarries of free-stone. Georgia, the 
most southern state, is of a rich soil ; but besides a bank 
of oyster shells, ninety miles from the sea, there seems 
no mineralogic discovery. 

Mineral Waters. There are several mineral 
waters of various virtues, in different provinces of the 
United States. In the province of Vermont, or the Green 
Mountain, there is a remarkable sulphureous spring, 


440 


UNITED STATES. 


which dries lip in two or three years, and bursts out in ano¬ 
ther place. Those of Saratoga, in the province of New 
York, are remarkably copious, and surrounded with singu¬ 
lar petrifactions. In Pennsylvania there are some that 
have been frequented for more than half a century. Two 
warm springs occur in Virginia, one of them 112°. These 
are called the springs of Augusta ; others more frequented 
are near the river Potomac. The salt springs in Kentuc¬ 
ky also deserve mention ; and there are others in the State 
of Tennessee. 

Bays, Rivers, and Lakes. The most remark¬ 
able bays are Casco, Barnstable, Piscataqua, and Boston 
bays in the north east; Delaware bay in the middle divi¬ 
sion ; Chesapeak bay, Albermarle and Pamlico sounds in 
the south : the latter two are hardly to be termed bays as 
they are shallow, and their navigation obstructed by nume¬ 
rous sand bars. A short account of the principal rivers 
of the United States will appear more properly under the 
heads of the respective States. 

Besides the great lakes which form the northern boun¬ 
dary, and which have been alieady mentioned in the gene¬ 
ral description of North America, there are some consi¬ 
derable lakes in the northern parts of the United territory. 
Those on the west have been little explored. The small 
lakes called Cedar, I ittle Winnipeg, and Leech, supply the 
sources of the Mississippi. On the east the most impor¬ 
tant lake is that of Champlain, rather resembling a wide 
river which flows into that of St. Lawrence, and supplies 
an easy communication with Canada. The Champlain is 
the boundary between the states of New York and Ver¬ 
mont., being in length about 75 g. miles, while the breadth 
seldom exceeds four or five ; and it terminates in the broad 
river called Chambly or Richlieu, which falls within the 
limits ol Canada. Lake George, at the southern extremity 
of Champlain, approaches w ithin a few miles of the Hud¬ 
son river, so that a canal might be opened at no great ex¬ 
pense. Besides many small lakes S. W. of the Cham¬ 
plain, there are several other lakes in the same direction, 
and also in the province of New York, as the Oneida, the 
Cayuga, and Seneca. 

Mountains. The chief mountains have been 
likewise noticed in the general view of North America. 
The White and Green mountains in the northern provirr- 


UNITED STATES. 


441 


ces, and the Land’s Height, which bounds the District of 
Maine, may be regarded as elongations of the Apalachian 
chain, but these and some others of local denominations, 
we shall describe more explicitly elsewhere. 

Forests. Aboriginal forests are so numerous 
throughout the United territory, that none seem to be par¬ 
ticularly distinguished. There does not appear to exist, 
on the whole continent of America, any of those sandy de¬ 
serts which are so remarkable in Asia and Africa. There 
is, on the contrary, an exuberance of water even in the 
most torrid regions ; which might be added as a proof of 
the theory that this continent has more recently emerged. 
Even the volcanoes in South America often pour down tor¬ 
rents of water and mud, and no where occur the sandy 
ruins of plains, after the fertile soil has been totally lost, 
or the rocky skeletons of ancient mountains. The large 
tract in the eastern part of Virginia and North Carolina, 
called the Dismal Swamp, occupies about 150.000 acres ; 
but it is entirely covered with trees, juniper and cypress on 
the more moist parts, and on the drier white and red oaks, 
and a variety of pines. These trees attain a prodigious 
size ; and among them there is often thick brushwood, so 
as to render the swamp impervious, while other forests in 
North America are commonly free from underwood. 
Cane reeds, and tall rich grass, soon fatten cattle of the 
vicinity, which are taught to return to the farms of their 
own accord. In this swampy forest bears, wolves, deer, 
and other wild animals abound. Some parts are so dry as 
to bear a horse, while some are overflowed, and others so 
miry that a man would sink up to the neck. A canal has 
been led through it ; and even in the dry parts water of the 
colour of brandy gushed in at the depth of three feet. In 
the northern part the timber supplies an article of trade, 
while in the southern rice is found to prosper ; and in the 
neighbourhood none of these diseases are known which 
haunt other marshy situations. 

Swamps. Georgia presents a singular marsh, or 
in the wet season a lake, called Ekansanoko, by others 
Ounquafenoga, in the S. E. extremity of the province. 
This marshy lake is about 300 miles in circumference, and 
contains several large and fertile isles, one of vvhieii is re¬ 
presented by the Creek Indians as a kind of paradise, inha¬ 
bited by a peculiar race, whose women are incomparably 





442 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


beautiful, and are called by them daughters of the sttn. 
These islanders are said to be a remnant of an ancient 
tribe, nearly exterminated by the Creeks. 

Islands. The principal islands belonging to the 
American Confederacy, are Nantucket, attached to the 
State of Massachusetts, situated about eight leagues south 
of Cape Cod, remarkable for its expert and enterprising 
seamen, and containing about six thousand inhabitants ; and 
Long Island which is separated from the States of Connec¬ 
ticut and New York, by the sound and East river, being 
about 140 miles in length, with about 10 miles of medial 
breadth. It is highly cultivated, supplying New York 
market with a great part of its vegetables, and contains up¬ 
wards of 30,000 inhabitants. What is called Rhode Island 
is chiefly continental ; all the other islands subject to the 
lederal Government are either a few strips of land lying 
along tne coast of the Carolinas and Georgia, or dispersed 
through the various bays and lakes, and ax’e of little com¬ 
parative value. 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


Extent and Situation. NEW HAMPSHIRE is 
situated between 42° 41' and 45° 30' N. latitude, and 2° 
41' and 4° 29' E. long, from Philadelphia, or 70° 40' and 
72° 28' W. from London ; being bounded on the east by 
the Atlantic ocean and the District of Maine, on the North 
by Lower Canada, on the west by Connecticut river, which 
divides it from Vermont, and on the south by the State of 
Massachusetts. 

Original Population. The earliest authentic 
notice we have of the aboriginal proprietors of this territory, 
is exhibited in the sale they made of land to a certain Eng¬ 
lish company in the year 1629. At this time the Saga¬ 
mores of Penecook, Pentucket, Squamshat and Nuchawa- 




NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


443 


nack, by a deed under their hands and seals, conveyed to 

the reverend John Wheelwright and his followers, all that 

tract of land that lies between the rivers Piscataqua and 
Merrimack, from their falls to the ocean ; on condition, 
that every township should pay annually, for ever, to the 
chief Sagamore and his heirs, a good “ coat of trucking 
cloth,” and to the “ said John Wheelwright, his heirs, and 
successors” two bushels of Indian corn ; reserving to them¬ 
selves the privilege of fishing, hunting, and planting, in any 
part of the same. But these sachems were proprietors of 
part only of the country now styled New Hampshire ; for 
in Hubbard s history of the Indian wars, that occurred some 
years afterwards, we have the names of several other tribes 
who desolated the English settlements, as the Taranteens, 
the Sacos, the Indians of Amascoggin, Penobscot, Piscata¬ 
qua, See. 

Memorable Events. 1. The discovery of New 
Hampshire, by Captain John Smith who ranged the coast 
fi om Penobscot to Cape Cod, and in the course of his voy¬ 
age ascertained the mouth of the river Piscataqua. 

2. Grants made by the Council of Plymouth to Capt. 

John Mason, and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, in 1621_2, of 

two large tracts which comprise all the lands from Salem 
to the Merrimack, and thence to the Sagadohock, and back 
to the lakes of Canada. It was under the authority of this 
patent that the first settlement was made in 1623. 

3. Wheelwright’s purchase from the Indian Sachems in 
1629. 

g ( ucilof PI v mouth resign their charter to the 

King in 1635, reserving the rights of Companies and indi¬ 
viduals to all the lands they justly claimed, which claims 
were mostly confirmed to them by the crown. 

5. In 1637, the Rev. John Wheelwright was disfran¬ 
chised and banished by the government of Massachusetts, 
for his adherence to Mrs. Hutchinson, a female schisma¬ 
tic ; but being a teacher of considerable credit, he drew 
with him great part of his congregation, and they founded 
the town of Exeter, in New Hampshire, having first bought 
the soil from the natives. 

6. In consequence of the divisions and animosities that 
distracted this infant colony, for it was torn at one time by 
no less than four discordant governments, the people soli¬ 
cit the interposition of Massachusetts. The application 


444 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


was well received, and by a formal act dated 1641, they re¬ 
signed the jurisdiction, and became united with Massa¬ 
chusetts. 

7. New Hampshire is separated from Massachusetts, 
and erected into a distinct government by the crown of 
Great Britain, in 1679, and Mr. Cult appointed the first 
governor. 

8. A destructive Indian war, which broke out about the 
year 1692, checked the progress of population and improve¬ 
ment in New Hampshire ; many of the inhabitants being 
killed, others carried into captivity, and their grain and 
houses destroyed. 

9. A long existing controversy respecting the divisional 
line between New Hampshire and Massachusetts, terminat¬ 
ed by commissioners appointed by the king, in 1737. 

1© Although the colony had a separate legislature, they 
mostly were under the same governor as Massachusetts, 
till 1740. From this period they were placed under the 
jurisdiction of a separate governor. 

11. Two delegates appointed to meet the Continental 
Congress at Philadelphia, July 2 1, 1774. 

12. The Federal Constitution ratified, June 2 1, 1788, by 
a majority of 57 votes to 46. 

13. The present State Constitution framed and confirm¬ 
ed, September 5, 1792, being an amendment of a preceding 
temporary system. 

Civil Divisions. New Hampshire is divided into 
counties and townships ; according to the last census, tak¬ 
en in 1800, there were five counties, and upwards of 200 
townships, the latter generally six miles square. The town¬ 
ships are all incorporated. 

Manners and Customs. The people cf this state 
are mostly descended from English progenitors. They are 
a strong, active, industrious race, engaged principally in 
agriculture or the fisheries. Dr. Belknap laments their too 
free indulgence in spirituous liquors, but this is an evil too 
prevalent in all the states, though perhaps more conspicu¬ 
ous in the northern districts, where the rigour of the cli¬ 
mate and the occupation of the people may perhaps ren¬ 
der it less injurious. They have no slaves and few blacks. 

Cities, Towns and Edifices. Portsmouth, si¬ 
tuated in the lat. of 43° 45', N. is the largest town in New 
Hampshire. It is seated on the Piscataqua riverj about 


445 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

two miles from the ocean, and in 1800 contained 5339 inha¬ 
bitants. Its public buildings are a state-house, four school 
houses, a work house, and five places of public religious 
worship. The harbour is excellent, and the trade great 
and increasing. Here are two Banks. 

Exeter is one of the most ancient towns in this state, 
founded by the Rev. John Wheelwright and his brother, 
in 1635. It is seated on the south side of Exeter river, 
about 15 miles from Portsmouth, and contains about 2000 
inhabitants. Its growth was checked by the revolution¬ 
ary war, before which it carried on ship building on an ex¬ 
tensive scale. It has one Bank. 

Concord. This is an inland town, and the centre 
of considerable trade and intercourse. It is situated on the 
Merrimack river, is the seat of the state government, and 
has about 2500 inhabitants. The state has many other 
thriving towns and villages, but these are the principal. 

Roads and Inland Navigation. In a country 
like New Hampshire but thinly peopled, there are not many 
hands to be spared for making artificial roads or canals. 
Of the latter, there is one cut through the marshes from 
Hampton to the river Merrimack, sufficient for the passage 
of loaded boats for about 8 miles; and there is another un¬ 
dertaken round the falls of Merrimack, near Amuskeg, 
which is nearly completed. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The principal 
manufacture is ship building, as the state abounds with ex¬ 
cellent timber for the purpose. Portsmouth is distinguish¬ 
ed for having built the only 74 gun ship that was ever 
completed in the United States; which was presented dur¬ 
ing the war of independence to our great ally, Louis XYT* 
of France. 

In the year 1791, the shipping of this state amounted to 
19,000 tons: the product of the fisheries was 25,800 quin¬ 
tals, and the amount of the exports, in 1802, was 565,394 
dollars. The principal articles sent abroad are lumber of 
various kinds, masts, yards and spars, horses, cattle, pot 
and pearl ashes, salted fish and provisions. A consider¬ 
able part of the produce of this state is shipped from the 
ports of Massachusetts or Connecticut, and it is sent 
principally to Great Britain, or the British West India 
islands. 

* P 


446 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


As the general rage of the United States is a specula¬ 
tion in Banks, and other paper institutions, New Hamp¬ 
shire has not escaped the infection; but the principal Bank 
of discount and deposit is at Portsmouth, incorporated in 
1792, and possessing a capital of 60,000 dollars, which 
may be increased occasionally to 200,000. 

Climate and Seasons. The air of New Hamp¬ 
shire is in general clear and salutary, subject nevertheless 
to as sudden changes as in the middle and southern states. 
But as it contains in its bosom and vicinity many lofty 
mountains, whose heights are covered with snow and ice 
a great part of the year, the winters are long and intensely 
cold. The heat of summer is as intemperate, but being of 
short duration does not unbrace the vigorous frames of the 
hardy inhabitants. The extremes of heat and cold, are 
from 20° below, to 100° above 0: the medium about 50° 
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. 

Soil and Agriculture. The land of this state 
is broken by numerous hills and mountains; of course there 
is a great deal unfit for cultivation. The sea coast is light 
and sandy; but for about 80 miles from the ocean there 
are many rich vallies which enjoying an annual alluvion 
from the mountains are very productive, and yield exuber¬ 
ant crops of wheat, rye, Indian corn, barley, hemp, hops, 
&c. The climate is friendly to fruit trees, and orchards of 
pears and apples are cultivated successfully by every far¬ 
mer. 

Bays, Rivers and Lakes. As this state has but 
18 miles of front on the ocean, it cannot present many 
bays or rivers; indeed the only bay that deserves to be 
mentioned is that of Piscataqua which spreads from Exe¬ 
ter to Portsmouth; and the only considerable river that 
runs wholly through the state, is the river of the same 
name, the principal branch of which, called Nywichwan- 
nock, springs from the southernmost of Lovell’s Ponds, 
about 40 miles from the sea. The harbour of Piscataqua 
is much enlarged by the junction of four auxiliary streams 
uniting about eight miles above the town of Portsmouth. 
There are some remarkable ponds or lakes in this state, 
as Umbagog, near the north-east corner of the state, and 
Winnisipiokee, near the centre; the latter is about 20 miles 
long, and from 3 to 8 broad; but there are many other 
small bodies of standing water of lesser consideration. 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


4 47 


Mountains and Forests. New Hampshire may 
be justly distinguished as a mountainous country. The 
white mountains, which extend north-east and south-west, 
are the highest in the state, and perhaps some part of them 
the highest ground in the United States, being estimated 
at 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. These furnish 
the springs of numerous streams, as well as of some con¬ 
siderable rivers, particularly the Connecticut, Amarisco- 
gen, and Saco rivers. In a country but thinly peopled, 
and intersected by mountainous tracts, there must be nu¬ 
merous forests; these, except in a few barren spots, af¬ 
ford a lasting supply oi the most valuable timber, such as 
the pine, walnut, chesnut, hickory, beach and oak, besides 
a great variety of flowering trees and shrubs. 

Seminaries of Learning. To the credit of the 
New England states it may be justly observed, that they 
have universally patronized the diffusion of useful know¬ 
ledge, among even the lowest classes of the people. All 
the townships of this state are bound by a particular law to 
support an adequate number of schools. Nor are the supe¬ 
rior branches of science neglected. Dartmouth college, 
founded in the year 1769 under the patronage of the Earl 
of Dartmouth, is a rich, respectable and growing institu¬ 
tion, under the direction of a president, two professors, 
and as many tutors. It has about 130 students, and pos¬ 
sesses, an elegant library, as well as a competent number 
of useful instruments for making philosophical and mathe¬ 
matical experiments. At Exeter there is a flourishing 
academy; at Portsmouth a grammar school; and at Con¬ 
cord, Amherst, and Charleston, there are some respecta¬ 
ble institutions. 

Religion. The religion of New Hampshire, is 
principally that of the Congregational sect; but there are 
many churches of Presbyterians, some of Baptists, and 
one of Episcopalians. No parish is obliged to have a mi¬ 
nister, but if they contract with one, they are bound by 
law to comply with their engagements. Any individual 
has a right to leave his congregation when he chooses, but 
he is obliged agreeably to his contract to contribute to the 
maintenance of his former teacher. This measure, how¬ 
ever hostile to the rights of conscience, is well calculated 
to establish the predominant sect, and to render the forms 
of religion respected. 


448 


NEW HAMPSHIRE. 


Government. The constitution of this state has 
a strong resemblance to that of Massachusetts, being co¬ 
pied from it with a few variations. The executive power 
is lodged in the hands of a governor who is chosen annu¬ 
ally by the people, not by a plurality, but by a majority of 
all the votes returned. When no candidate has a majori¬ 
ty, the general court selects one of the two highest. His 
compensation is adequate, but depends on the will of the 
legislature. He must be thirty years of age, a resident in 
the state seven years preceding his election, and he must 
possess an estate worth 500/. currency, one half of it in a 
clear freehold. He has a power to convene the executive 
council whenever the public business may require it: with 
the advice of his council (which consists of five members 
elected also by the people annually); he appoints judges, 
attorney general, sheriffs, coroners, registers of probate, 
and all the general and field officers of the militia; with 
their consent he may likewise grant reprieves and pardons, 
for ail offences, except in cases of impeachment. He con¬ 
firms all laws, and may negative any bill presented to him, 
which dissent is valid, except when two thirds of both 

houses concur, after a rcvisal, to enact the same.-The 

legislature, which is styled the general court, consists of 
two branches: a Senate, and House of Representatives, 
both of which are elected annually by the people; the for¬ 
mer has 13, and the latter 120—130 members. A senator 
must possess a freehold worth 200/. and a representative, 
an estate worth 100/. one half freehold--The represen¬ 

tatives originate all money bills; they are the grand in¬ 
quest of the state, and have the power of impeachment. The 
senate try all causes of impeachment, and two thirds of the 
members present have a power to convict. In all other re¬ 
spects, the powers of the two houses are equal; jointly they 
appoint all the officers of government not otherwise provided 

for.,-The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed 

by the governor and council, during good behaviour: their 

salaries cannot be diminished while they are in office._ 

All male white inhabitants of the age of 21 years, who 
have paid taxes, have the right of suffrage at elections. 
Votes at these elections are received by a moderator and 
the select men in the towns and parishes, and in all other 
places by the tax assessors. 






VERMONT. 


449 


This state sends two senators ancl five representatives 
to Congress. The senators are appointed by a concurrent 
resolution of both houses, and the representatives are 
elected by the people at large. 

Population and Militia. According to the 
census taken in 1800, this state contained 183,858 inha¬ 
bitants, among whom there were but eight slaves. The 
increase is a duplication in about 33| years. Under the 
age of 16 years, the males are most numerous, but above 
that age the females exceed in the ratio of 47 to 45. It 
appears from a pretty accurate record that one in seven 
lives to the age of 70, and one in 14 to the age of 80 years. 
Of the present inhabitants, those of 26 years and upwards 
are about one-third, and those of 45 and upwards about 
one-sixth of the whole number. The population is about 
19-£ persons to a mile square. The militia consists of 
twenty-seven regiments, forming together about 30,000 
effective men. 


VERMONT. 

Extent and Boundary. THIS state which took 
its name from the Green Mountains that pervade it from 
south to north, is bounded by Lower Canada on the north, 
on the east by Connecticut river which separates it from 
New Hampshire, on the south by the state of Massachu¬ 
setts, and on the west by that of New York. It is situated 
between 42° 44' and 45° north latitude, and between 1° 43' 
and 3° 36' east long, from Philadelphia, or 71° 32' an 73° 
25' west from London, and contains about 10,000 square 
miles, and about 17 persons to a mile square. 

Original Population. Next to the aboriginal 
savages (the Iroquois or Five Nations) the first settlement 
made in this state was under a grant from the colony of 
Massachusetts, in or about the year 1725: when the go¬ 
vernment of that colony built fort Dummer upon Connec¬ 
ticut river, while the French were advancing up lake 

p p 2 




450 


VERMONT. 


Champlain, and building forts at every important pass 
round the British colonies in North America. 

Memorable Events. 1 . The grant of a large 
tract of land in the S. E. of Vermont was made by the 
general court of Massachusetts, in or about the year 1716, 
but no settlement was effected till the building of fort 
Dummer in 1725: as the country, being a frontier, was 
much exposed to the scalping knives of the French and 
their savage allies, its improvement was very slow. 

2. A divisional line was run in 1741, between the colo¬ 
nies of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, by which it 
appears that Vermont came within what was then thought 
to be the jurisdiction of New Hampshire, and was accord¬ 
ingly claimed as a part of that colony. Grants made, 1749, 
by Benning Wentworth, governor of New Hampshire, of 
several parcels of land between the Connecticut and Hud¬ 
son rivers, and a township of six miles square laid out, 
called Bennington, in allusion to the governor’s name. 

3. The commencement of hostilities by the French, in 
1754, stopped improvements, and put the inhabitants to 
flight. 

4. After the surrender of Montreal, in 1760, this country 
became more generally known, and, in the course of one 
year succeeding, not less than 60 townships were laid out 
by the government of New Hampshire. The cultivation 
increased with surprising rapidity. 

5. Vermont claimed by the province of New York, by 
virtue of an obsolete grant from Charles II. to his brother 
the Duke of York; a proclamation issued by governor Col- 
den, in 1763, invalidating the titles given by New Hamp¬ 
shire; and in 1764 the claim of New York to the jurisdic¬ 
tion, but not to the soil, was confirmed by the crown. This 
act of the British government, however well intended, was 
abused by the government of New York: attempts bein~ 
made to eject the settlers by force of arms, a civil war 
ensued. 

6. I ne inhabitants petitioned the crown for protection; 
and, m the year 1767, George III. interposed to stop the 
violent proceeding of New York, but without full effect. 
In 1774 , the governor of New York issued a proclamation, 
setting a premium on the heads of E. Allen, Seth Warner, 
and six others of the chiefs of Vermont: they published 
a counter declaration in which they threatened “ to kill and 


VERMONT. 


451- 


destroy any person or persons that were accessary, or any 
way assisting to the taking of them.” In this state of con¬ 
fusion the business remained until the breaking out of the 
revolutionary war; when the inhabitants renounced alle¬ 
giance to every government but their own. 

7. State Constitution framed, July 4, 1786, revised and 
amended July 4, 1793. 

8. Federal Constitution ratified by a great majority, Ja¬ 
nuary 10, 1791. 

9. Admitted as a member of the American Confederacy, 
March 4, 1791. 

Religion. As the inhabitants of Vermont emi¬ 
grated principally from Massachusetts and Connecticut 
they are mostly Congregationalists; one township settled 
chiefly by Scotch are Covenanters or Seceders. No man 
is obliged to contribute to the support of any minister but 
his own, or is excluded from civil offices on account of his 
particular religious sentiments. Two grants in every town¬ 
ship are appropriated for the support of the clergy, and for 
building of places of public worship. 

Government and Laws. The government of 
this state is one of the most simple, and has the least to 
recommend it to the imitation of wise men, of any in the 
Union. The executive power is vested in a governor, 
chosen annually by the people, by a majority of votes. 
There is no restraint on his re-eligibility, nor any provision 
made for his salary by the constitution; and a residence 
of four years seems to be a sufficient qualification to entitle 
any successful candidate to the office. With the concur¬ 
rence of the executive council, he appoints all officers, ex¬ 
cept where the constitution or some particular law has other¬ 
wise directed; he may remit fines, and grant pardons ex¬ 
cept for treason, murder, or cases of impeachment. With 
the assistance of the judge of the Supreme Court, he may 
hold a court to try impeachments. He is president of the 
executive council, ex-officio, in which he has merely a cast¬ 
ing vote ; but with their consent he may suspend the enact¬ 
ing any law during one session of assembly.—The legisla¬ 
ture is a single branch, and is styled the General Jlssembly . 
It is elected by the people annually; in conjunction with 
the executive council, they appoint all the principal civil 
and military officers. The consent of two thirds is neces¬ 
sary to impose taxes, and to impeach criminals. No qua- 


452 


VERMONT. 


lification required but a residence in the state two years 
prior to election.—The Judiciary officers are appointed by 
the assembly and council, as has been noticed. The courts 
consist of a Supreme Court, whose jurisdiction extends 
over the state, and county courts established in the several 
counties.—Every freeman who has resided in the state one 
year, and is 21 years of age, has a right to vote at elections. 
—There is an extraordinary article in the constitution of 
the state, which provides that, when an office becomes so 
profitable as to occasion many applications for it, the pro¬ 
fits thereof shall be diminished. Judicial proceedings are 
governed by the acts of assembly, and the common law of 
England. This state sends two Senators and four Repre¬ 
sentatives to the general Congress. Senators are appoint¬ 
ed by the Assembly; Representatives by the people, in 
districts: a majority is requisite in a first attempt, but a 
plurality will suffice in others. 

Divisions, Popui.ation and Militia. This 
state is divided into eleven counties, and these into town¬ 
ships, which are generally six miles square, and about 
250 in number. In every of these townships there are 
two lots, of 350 acres each, appropriated for the support 
of schools, and the maintenance of the first minister of the 
gospel who settles in the township.—When the last cen¬ 
sus was taken in the year 1800 the inhabitants of Vermont 
amounted to 154,379: no slaves. The increase in the last 
preceding 10 years was 68,626. Under 16 years 81,104 
above 72,804. The militia of the state amounts at least 
to 20,000 men, hardy and well trained. These form two 
divisions, including seven brigades, one on the west, and 
the other on the east side of the mountain. 

Revenue and Expenses. The taxable property 
in Vermont was rated in 1791 at 1,082,600 dollars. At 
present it must be nearly doubled. In the year 1792, the 
public revenues amounted to 11,240 dollars, and the ordina¬ 
ry expenses of government about 10,800 dollars, being 
hardly one-eighth of a dollar per head. 

Manners, Customs and Language. In describing 
the manners, customs, and language of the inhabitants ofthe 
Green mountains, it is sufficient to say they are New England 
men; a brave and hardy race, frugal, laborious and zealous¬ 
ly attached to a republican form of government. With 
them also they partake of certain provincial idioms, which 


VERMONT. 


453 


are not reconcileable to the purity of the English language. 
—As the means of supporting a family are easily acquired, 
the people are generally encouraged to marry early. 

Seminaries of Learning. In no state is there 
more attention shewn to have all the children taught to 
read, write, and understand the rules of common arithme¬ 
tic. This they justly esteem necessary to carry on any of 
the ordinary pursuits of life, and it would be thought dis¬ 
honourable to the parents, if their children were ignorant 
of either. To promote this useful purpose, the govern¬ 
ment has set apart a lot of >50 acres in every township, 
for the support of schools. Besides these common semi¬ 
naries, spread every where through the state, there is a 
flourishing academy at Middlebury, and another at Peach- 
am; and in 179], the government passed an act for erect¬ 
ing an University at Burlington, on lake Champlain, for the 
support of which thirty thousand acres of land have been 
set apart, besides 6000/. which was secured by donation. 

Chief Towns. The principal towns of this state 
are Bennington, Windsor, and Rutland, each of them the 
heads of counties of the same names, and the two latter, 
alternately the seat of government. Each contains be¬ 
tween two and three thousand inhabitants. Bennington is 
distinguished by being the scene of an engagement, dur¬ 
ing the revolutionary war, between the New England mi¬ 
litia and an advanced party of the British army, consisting 
principally of foreigners and commanded by a foreign offi¬ 
cer; which terminated in the success of American arms, 
and was a prelude to the defeat and captivity of Burgoyne’s 
army, as well as a proof or the inattention or incapacity of 
the commander in chief. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The body of the 
people of Vermont are engaged in agriculture. The land 
is new and the price moderate; and there being no seaport 
to attract the people to the pursuits of commerce, they are 
necessarily engaged in cultivating the earth: an employ¬ 
ment the most innocent, honourable, and useful. Never¬ 
theless domestic manufactures are not neglected. The 
greatest part of the farmers manufacture the woollens and 
linens used in their own families. The soil and climate 
seem favourable to sheep as well as flax.—As the country 
abounds in excellent iron ore, it has naturally introduced 
various coarse manufactories of that article. It is some 


454 


VERMONT. 


years since there were erected in the state, 2 i forges and 
three furnaces from which large quantities of bar iron, as 
well as nails are produced annually. The manufacture of 
pot and pearl ashes is still more extensive.—In the year 
1791, the inhabitants made as much as 1000 tons, and in 
one township in the year 1794, eighty-three families only 
produced 14,000 pounds of maple sugar. Their principal 
commercial intercourse is with Albany and New York. 
The amount of their exports in 1802 was 31,479 dollars. 

Climate and Seasons. As Vermont lies between 
the 42® and 45° north lat. and a large part of the land is 
intersected by a range of lofty mountains, the cold that 
prevails is early and severe: the frosts begin from the first 
to the middle of September, and cease about the beginning 
of June. On the 19th of March 1789, the ground was 
frozen to the depth of three feet eight inches. The ice on 
the lakes and stagnant waters is generally 30 inches thick. 
The greatest height of the mercury in Fahrenheit’s ther¬ 
mometer, during the years 1789—90 and 9 1, was 93|°, 
and the least height 27° below 0. The fall of water in one 
year (1789) was 41,179 inches. 

Soil and Agriculture. The land of this state 
is generally of a fertile nature, “ the soil deep and of a 
dark colour, rich, moist, warm, and loomy.” “It bears 
corn and other kinds of grain, in large quantities, as soon 
as it is cleared of the wood, without any ploughing or pre¬ 
paration; and after the first crop, naturally turns to rich 
pasture.” Of course the quantities of wheat, rye, barley, 
and other nutritious grain, which are raised annually, are 
very considerable; but as the state possesses no seaport, 
and the expense of land carriage is comparatively great, not 
much more of these articles have been cultivated, than suf¬ 
ficed for internal consumption. 

Rivers and Lakes. All the streams and rivers 
of Vermont take their rise in the Green Mountains. About 
35 of them have an easterly direction and fall into the Con¬ 
necticut river; about 25 run westerly and discharge them¬ 
selves into lake Champlain; and two or three running in 
the same direction fall into Hudson’s river. The most con¬ 
siderable streams on the west side are Otter creek, Onion 
river, the river Lamoille and Michiscoui. Onion river is 
one of the finest streams in Vermont, but none of the fore- 
mentioned are navigable, even by boats, more than seven 


VERMONT. 


455 


miles from its mouth. On the east side the rivers are not 
so large, but are more numerous than on the west; the 
largest are West river, White river, and Poousoom-suck. 
Connecticut river, into which the last mentioned streams 
fall, forms the eastern boundary of the state, and is one of 
the finest streams in New England. This river, which 
rises in the mountains that divide Canada from the United 
States, after running about 400 miles through the country, 
and affording a navigation for vessels of 100 tons burthen, 
fifty miles from its mouth, discharges into the ocean at 
Saybrook in Connecticut. Lake Champlain is the largest 
collection of waters in this part of the United States. In 
length, extending from Fairhaven to St. John’s, it is about 
200 miles, and in width from one to eighteen miles. It con¬ 
tains several islands; one of them, the Grand Isle, is 24 
miles long, and from two to four miles wide. It is gene¬ 
rally frozen over by the middle of January, affording a 
safe road for travellers, and about the middle of April, the 
ice generally goes oft*. Part only of the lake Memphre- 
magog lies within the limits of Vermont, the other part in 
Canada; this lake is about 40 miles in length, and between 
two and three miles wide. 

Mountains. A chain of high mountains, running 
nearly north and south, divides this state almost through 
the centre, having Connecticut river on one side, and lake 
Champlain and Hudson river on the other. The natural 
growth of this range is hemlock, pine, spruce, and other 
ever-greens: hence it has always a green appearance, and 
on this account it obtained the descriptive name of Verd 
Mont, or Green Mountain. On some elevated parts of 
this mountain the snow lies till June: Killington Peak, 
which is one of the highest parts, being computed Co be 
3454 feet above the level of the ocean. 

Vegetable, Animal, and Mineral Productions. 
When the Europeans first landed on the shores of Ame¬ 
rica, it was a world of woods, and presented to the eye of 
the curious traveller, a most magnificent prospect; and 
this is still the case with much the largest part of Ver¬ 
mont, abounding in trees, plants, and flowers, almost infi¬ 
nite in number. Of these we shall enumerate only a few 
of the most common and useful. The trees most common 
are pines of various species, maple, beach, ash, elm, oak, 
chesnut, hickory, cedar, poplar, and willow. Of the fruit 


456 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


bearing trees, shrubs, and vines, the kinds are numerous, 
as plums of various species, cherry, juniper, mulberry, 
gooseberry, currant, blackberry, raspberry, strawberry, 
and several kinds of grapes, together with numerous other 
articles of the vegetable kingdom, which we are obliged to 
omit. Of quadrupeds, Vermont contains 36 different spe¬ 
cies. Her extensive forests shelter the moose, bear, wolf, 
deer, fox, wild cat, racoon, hare, rabbit, squirrel, See. her 
ponds and lakes, the beaver, musk-rat, mink, and otter; 
and most of the feathered and insect tribes are found here, 
that are common to the American states. The principal 
mineral, is iron ore, of which we have already taken ample 
notice. 


MASSACHUSETTS, 

INCLUDING 

MAINE. 

Extent and Boundaries. MASSACHUSETTS 
(which, including the district of Maine, constitutes one of 
the United States,) is bounded on the north by Vermont, 
and New Hampshire; on the east by the Atlantic ocean; on 
the south by the Atlantic, Rhode Island and Connecticut; 
and on the west by New York. This state (Maine in¬ 
cluded,) extends from 41° 13', to 48° 15' N. latitude, and 
from 1° 30' to 10° 15' east longitude from Philadelphia, 
or from 65° to 73^ 45' W. from London; and contains 
about 40,000 square miles. 

Original Population. This state derives its 
name from the bay of Massachusetts , and that from a pow¬ 
erful tribe of natives, the ancient proprietors; though the 
Monegins, Narraganzetts and Pequods, are names of fre¬ 
quent occurrence in the early history of the country, and 
probably possessed a portion of it at the time the English 
landed: for it is known that the tribes were many, and 
none of them contained any great number of people. Al¬ 
though this territory was granted by King James, as early 
as 1606, to a company of wealthy men, with Sir John 




MASSACHUSETTS. 


457 


Popham, Chief Justice of England, at their head, all their 
exertions were feeble and unfortunate, till religion animat¬ 
ed some of the English dissenters to settle on this western 
continent. 1 he first successful adventurers were a reli¬ 
gious society who had fled from England, and seated them¬ 
selves at Leyden, in Holland, under the direction of John 
Robinson, their pastor : but finding that their community 
was like to decline instead of increasing, among the Dutch, 
they petitioned King James for permission to transport 
themselves and families to New England. Meeting with 
some slight encouragement, one hundred and twenty per¬ 
sons embarked in a single ship, and landed in November 
1620, at a place afterwards called Plymouth, in Plymouth 
county, which is still commemorated as the cradle of the 
New England colonies. 

Memorable Events. 1 . A patent granted by 
the Plymouth Council to Sir Henry Roswell and five 
others, in 1627, for a very extensive tract of country extend¬ 
ing three miles south of Charles*river, and three north of 
Merrimack, and from sea to sea : but this instrument con¬ 
veyed only a right to the soil, none to the government. 

2. A royal charter was obtained in 1623 : the first go¬ 
vernor and assistants appointed by the crown : their suc¬ 
cessors to be appointed by the corporation. The power of 
making laws for iilternal government committed to the bo¬ 
dy of the people. 

3. The patent and government transferred to Massa¬ 
chusetts from the council residing in England in 1629. 

4. The first general court held by the people at large in 
1631. At this court it was agreed, that in future the free- 
men should choose assistants, and these elect from among 
themselves, governor and deputy governor, who should 
have the power of making laws and appointing officers. 
At the next general court the freemen resume their privi¬ 
leges, and pass a law, that “none hut church members should 
be admitted to the freedom of the body politic,” which con¬ 
tinued in force till the dissolution of the government. 

5. The year 1636 was distinguished by a dispute be¬ 
tween Cotton and Hooker, two influential clergymen of 
Massachusetts ; the latter left the colony in disgust or was 
driven out, and drawing with him one hundred followers, 
they moved into Connecticut, and settled the townships of 
Hartford, Springfield and Weathersfield. 

<cq 


458 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


6. An exterminating war was waged about this time, by 
the conjoined arms of Massachusetts and Connecticut, 
against the Pequod Indians. This tribe, which, before the 
war could muster 1000 warriors, was nearly extirpated : 
oi the prisoners taken a part was shipped to Bermudas 
and the West Indies, and sold for slaves, some were retain¬ 
ed as slaves in Massachusetts and Connecticut, and others 
were given up to the Narraganset Indians, allies of the co¬ 
lonies, to be tortured to death. 

About this period, 1636, there was another schism 
in the Massachusetts church, occasioned by a Mrs. Hut¬ 
chinson and the reverend Roger Williams ; they were 
banished, and began the settlement of a new colony in 
Rhode Island, where they experienced more friendship 
from the savages than from the bigots of Massachusetts. 

7. Emigration to New England ceased about the year 
1640 ; the republicans having obtained the ascendant in 
old England. 

S. In the year 1646, certain members of the church of 
England and Scotland petitioned the general court for the 
lestoiation cl their rights as freemen, complaining that 
they were taxed oy an assembly where they were not re- 
piesented, and bound by laws to which they had not con¬ 
sented ; for which act they T were fined and imprisoned as op- 
posers of government. And when they endeavoured to 
carry their complaints to the British Parliament, the ge- 
neial couit attempted to seize their papers and obstruct 
their embarkation. 

J. I he year 164 8 was distinguished by a rage against 
witchcraft. M. Jones, of Charleston, was tried, condemn¬ 
ed and executed for this supposed crime ; and her hus- 
band who, being alarmed for his own safety, had embark¬ 
ed ior Barbadoes, was seized and committed to prison, be¬ 
cause the ship was seen to roll, while he was on board. 

10. In the year 1656, began the persecution against the 
Quakers, and continued with little intermission till 1661, 
when it was stopped by the interposition of royal authority. 
W lule the tragedy lasted, a great number were whipped, 
and imprisoned ; some had their tongues bored and four 
were hanged. 1 he mad pranks of these enthusiasts had 
risen to such an alarming height, that King Charles sent 
over commissioners in 1665, to take the judicial authority 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


459 


out of the hands of the existing administration, and esta¬ 
blish a milder system. 

H About the year 1674, broke out an obstinate and 
bloody war with the savages, called in the New England 
acinus, A miip s war. 1 his war was occasioned, in some 
measure, by an attempt to subjugate the Indians to the 
laws oi the colony, and to treat their king as a subject ; 
summoning him and other chiefs to appear before the tri¬ 
bunals oi the colony. It raged with various success for 
several years ; but terminated in the success of the Emr- 
Jisn. ^ borne oi the prisoners taken were tried and exe¬ 
cuted, and others were sold as slaves to the West India 
planters. 

12. In 1692. The old charter abrogated, and a new one 
obtained from King William, by which the appointment of 
governor was vested in the crown, and every inhabitant of 
40/. sterling personal estate was entitled to vote for repre¬ 
sentatives. This new charter included the colony of Ply¬ 
mouth, and the Province of Maine under the same go¬ 
vernment, as well as the province of Nova Scotia ; but the 
latter was afterwards separated, and erected into a distinct 
jurisdiction. . 1 his year was distinguished by a revival of 
the rage against witchcraft which flamed with redoubled 
violence. Hundreds were accused, and many condemned 
and executed for various imaginary crimes. 

lo. The small pox made terrible havoc among the inha¬ 
bitants about 1721. Inoculation introduced by Dr. BqvIs- 
ton, beginning with his own family, but reprobated with 
i eiigious horror by a great majority of the people. 

14. 1725. A treaty with the Indians, succeeded by a 
wiser and juster conduct towards them, secured the tran¬ 
quillity of the province for many years. 

15. 1 lie reduction of Eouisburg (in cape Breton) plan¬ 
ned and executed, principally, by forces from the New Eng¬ 
land provinces. 

16. The French make encroachments on the British co¬ 
lonies, exciting the savages to murder the inhabitants, in 
l/'54. Massachusetts petitions the British government for 
succour ; describing their “distressed circumstances,”-and 
inability to “ maintain a force necessary for their defence.’' 

F . I lie stamp act in 1765. The ships put in mourning, 
the bells muffled, and the act printed with a death’s head 
affixed to it, and hawked about the streets of Boston. The 


460 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


act, and the effigies of its principal patrons burnt in the 
public places. The act repealed by the British Parlia¬ 
ment in 1766. 

18. In 1768 the assembly of Massachusetts write cir¬ 
cular letters to the other colonies, inviting them to unite in 
opposing the acts of the British Parliament. 

19. Upon the seizure of a sloop laden with wines, in 
order to secure the duties payable thereon, the people of 
Boston burnt a boat belonging to the collector, pelted the 
commissioners with stones, attacked their houses, and forc¬ 
ed them to take refuge on board the Romney man of war 
for their safety. The assembly dissolved, the people meet 
in a convention, they appoint a day for public fasting and 
prayer, and publish a recommendation to the people to fur¬ 
nish themsthes with arms. 

20. in 1770 a riot in Boston, in which the mob attack 
the soldiers on guard, and by various provocations force 
them to fire, by which five persons were killed. The bodies 
of the rioters carried to their graves with the farce of a 
pompous public mourning. 

21. Proposals originate in Boston, for calling a general 
congress of delegates from all the provinces, to meet at 
Philadelphia, which accordingly met July 1774. 

22. Four delegates appointed June 17, 1774, to meet the 
general congress. 

23. In April 1775, happened wffiatis called the battle of 
Lexington, an issue to which some had long laboured to 
bring the dispute between Great Britain and her colonies, 
and which was succeeded in July of the next year, by a re¬ 
nunciation of the government of Great Britain, and the de¬ 
claration of independence. 

24. State constitution framed, March 2^ 1780, revised 
and continued in 1795. 

25. Federal constitution ratified, February 6, 1788, by 
187 to 168 votes. 

Religion. The predominant religious sect in 
Massachusetts is that of the Congregationalists. They 
comprise four-fifths of the inhabitants. All religions are 
tolerated, and apparently equal ; but every person residing 
in the state is obliged to contribute to the maintenance of 
public Protestant worship, to his own teachers, if he has 
any, otherwise to the parson of the parish where he re¬ 
sides, 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


461 


Government and Laws. The supreme execu¬ 
tive authority is vested in a governor, who is chosen annu¬ 
ally by the people at large. To assure his election he must 
obtain a majority of all the votes returned, and if neither of 
the candidates has a majority, the senate appoints one of the 
two highest. He must have resided in the state seven years 
preceding his election, be possessed of a freehold estate 
worth 1000/. and make a public declaration of his belief in 
the Christian religion. He has an executive council of nine 
persons to advise with, of which he is president ex-officio, 
but has no vote therein. He has a power to assemble the 
council whenever public business requires ; he may pardon 
criminals, except in cases of impeachment ; negative bills 
except when two-thirds of the general court concur to en¬ 
act. He commissions all officers, and, with the advice of 
his council, appoints judges, attorney and solicitor general, 
sheriffs, coroners and registers of probate. In case of ab¬ 
sence, sickness, or other inability, his place is supplied by a 
lieutenant-governor, who is always a member of the coun¬ 
cil, and presides there when the governor is not present. 

The power of legislation is lodged in the general courts 
which consists of two branches, a senate, and a house of 
representatives. They are both elected by the people an- 
ually.—The senate consists of 31 members, who must 
have resided in the state five years prior to their election, 
and each possess a freehold worth 300/. or other property 
worth GOO/. They sit as judges on all impeachments.—A re¬ 
sidence in the state of one year, and a freehold of 100/. or 
other property worth 200/. are all the qualifications requir¬ 
ed in a representative. The origination of money bills, and 
the power of impeaching state criminals, rest in the house 
of representatives. In other respects .the powers of the 
two branches are equal—Conjointly they appoint the se¬ 
cretary, and treasurer of the state, the notaries public, and 
naval officers.—The travelling expences to and from the 
annual sessions of the general court are paid from the pub¬ 
lic treasury, and their compensation for attendance on the 
legislature, by their respective townships.—All freemen 2 l 
years of age, who have resided one year, and possess an 
annual income of 31. or other estate worth 60/. are entitled 
to vote at elections—The judges are appointed as has been 
mentioned/by the governor and council, and hold their com¬ 
missions during behaviour, nor can their salaries be dimi* 

o q 2 


462 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


nighed while in office. Justices of peace are appointed for 
seven years, but all the judiciary officers may be removed 
at any time by an impeachment, or a complaint present¬ 
ed to the governor by a joint vote of both houses of legis¬ 
lature.—This state sends two senators and 17 representa¬ 
tives to the general congress. Senators are appointed by 
concurrent ballots of the two branches of the general court; 
representatives are elected in the districts by a majority 
of votes. The common law of England is the rule of ju¬ 
dicial proceedings, except when it is opposed to some spe¬ 
cific law of the state. 

Divisions, Population and Mii.itia. The 
commonwealth of Massachusetts (proper) is divided into 
14 counties, and subdivided into 355 townships, which in 
1800 contained 422 845 inhabitants, no slaves ; increase in 
10 years 44,058 ; population about 67 persons to a square 
mileProm the beginning of the American revolution to 
this time, the progress of population has been slow. In 
1773 it was computed that there were 300,000 inhabitants 
in this province. In 1790 there were 378,787, which gives 
a difference of 78,787 in eighteen years. From 1790 to 
1800, the increase was 44,058, which is still less in pro¬ 
portion to the number of people. Before the revolution, 
the ratio of increase was much greater. In 1751 the inha¬ 
bitants were computed to be 164,484 ; in 1773 they had 
risen as above mentioned to 300,000 the difference 1 35,5 16 
m 22 years, or a duplication in about 26 years. Females 
to males throughout the state as 103 to 100; in Boston 
as 12 to 11. Oi both sexes, under 16 years there were 
187,747, and above that age 228,646. f 

The militia of Massachusetts is very respectable : by the 
returns made to the governor, they were computed at about 
60,000 effective men, completely armed and disciplined ; 
in which number there is a full proportion of cavalry and 
artillery. 

Revenue and Expence?. The annual expences 
of the civil list are about 116,000 dollars, which is about 
21 cents per head. The funded debt of the state was 
1,334,170 dollars in the year 1801 : to meet which, and to 
discharge the contingent expences of the year, the state 
possesses various kinds of stocks, which with a moderate 
tax, &c. amounts to 2,070,960 dollars. The revenue arises 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


463 

principally from taxes on polls and real property, from im¬ 
posts, excises, and sales of new land. 

Manners, Customs and Language. The 
men of this state are generally tall, stout and well pro¬ 
portioned, and many of the women handsome ; they have 
generally fair, fresh and healthful countenances, min¬ 
gled with a considerable degree of delicacy and infor¬ 
mation. The inhabitants of New England have been 
remarked for their hospitality as well as for a degree of 
inquisitiveness which borders on impertinence, and, be¬ 
fore the war, for a scrupulous observance of the Sabbath 
which had the appearance of superstition and bigotry. 
This reverence for religious institutions introduced and 
preserved among them the custom of annually celebrating 
fasts and thanksgivings ; and has been the means of pre¬ 
serving in New England more, at least of the appearance of 
religion, than is observable in the middle or southern states. 
As the inhabitants are almost universally of English des¬ 
cent, and a general attention has been paid to education, 
the English language has been preserved pretty free from 
corruption : among some of the country people there are 
a few provincial idioms, and a peculiar enunciation, which 
distinguish them from their neighbours—but this is more 
or less the case in all other countries. 

Seminaries of Learning. Massachusetts has 
been distinguished from its earliest period for a wise atten¬ 
tion to the cultivation of useful knowledge. By a law of 
the commonwealth every town having fifty householders is 
obliged to provide a schoolmaster to teach children to read 
find write ; and where there are 100 families, to establish 
and support a grammar school.—The university of Cam¬ 
bridge (formerly Harvard college) takes its date as early as 
the year 1638. This institution which is established about 
four miles from Boston, consists of four elegant brick edi¬ 
fices, comprising three halls and a chapel, and is enriched 
with a valuable library, and a museum containing numerous 
curiosities, and a splendid philosophical apparatus. It has 
generally from 120 to 150 students. There are besides 
this principal seminary five or six academies in different 
parts of the state for teaching English and French, the 
Greek and Latin languages, as well as all the liberal arts 
and sciences, most of which are well endowed, and in a 
flourishing state. 


4b4 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


Chief Towns. Boston is the capital, not only of 
Massachusetts, but of all New England. It is built in a 
very irregular manner, on a peninsula, at the bottom 
of Massachusetts bay ; containing 2870 dwelling houses, 
and 24,937 inhabitants. The harbour is safe, and large 
enough to entertain 500 ships at anchor in a good depth of 
water. Its quays and wharves are very convenient: one of 
the latter extends 600 yards into the bay, and far exceeds 
any other structure of the kind in the United States. The 
principal public buildings are, the state house, Fanuel hall, 
an alms-house, work-house, bridewell, and sixteen places of 
religious, worship : some of these edifices are spacious and 
elegant. The entrance of the harbour is guarded by a castle 
on which are mounted about forty pieces of heavy artillery, 
besides a great number of smaller size. The most consi¬ 
derable town, after Boston, is Salem, which in 1800 had 
9,457 inhabitants. At the same period Newbury-Port con¬ 
tained 5,946 inhabitants. Berwick 3 89 1 , Taunton 3,860, 
and Plymouth 3.524. But this state is filled with small 
towns and villages of from one to two thousand inhabitants. 

Manufactures and Commerce. Massachusetts can 
boast of more enterprising and industrious mariners than 
any other district of the union, and they are mostly natives. 
Their exports consist of New England rum, potash, lum¬ 
ber, fish, and the produce of the fisheries, which in the 
year 1802 amounted to 13,492,632 dollars. Their imports 
are not quite equal in value ; so that the balance of trade 
is considerably in their favour. Their chief manufactures 
are rum, pot and pearl ashes, linseed oil, cast iron, cannon, 
cordage, chocolate, spermaceti candles, and womens’ shoes/ 
Of this last article 170,000 pair have been made, and most 
of them exported annually. This state is sufficiently stock¬ 
ed with banks of discount and deposits ; there being not 
less than 18 or 20 in its several trading towns. 

Climate and Seasons. The greatestpart of Massachu¬ 
setts enjoys a climate and seasons auspicious to the health 
and longevity of its inhabitants, as it has been computed 
that one in seven lives to the age of 70 years. The winters 
are long and severe, but the air is generally dry and clear. 
The severe weather commences about the middle of De¬ 
cember, and the farmer commonly houses his cattle till the 
beginning of May, some years later. The heat of summer 
is sometimes intense, but not of long continuance, as the 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


465 


prevailing winds are from the west and north-west, the ele* 
vated region of frost and snow. The extremes of heat and 
cold are from 20 below to 100 above 0 in the open air—the 
medium about 50. According to observations made at 
Cambridge in 1784 and 1788, the fall of water is annually 
about 35 1-2 inches. 

Soil and Agriculture. Whatever is the cause, 
the soil of this state has been too steril to produce wheat 
for more than a century. This grain was raised in large 
crops till the year 1664, when it was first blasted. “ This is 
represented as an unusual thing at the time, but continued 
more or less for divers years together, until the people were 
discouraged from sowing ;** and at present most of the 
wheat flour consumed in the state is imported. On the 
sea coast the land is low, and mostly sanely. About thirty 
miles from the shore the soil improves, and between the 
mountains is cultivated to advantage, exhibiting rich mea¬ 
dows valuable crops of flax, rye, Indian corn, and other 
summer grain. Orchards are also numerous and very 
productive of the choicest fruits. In short the farmers of 
Massachusetts live in plenty and independence, and are 
remarked for their hospitality. 

Rivers, Bays and Islands. Massachusetts is irrigat¬ 
ed by numerous streams. One of the largest is Merrimack 
river, which runs through the north-eastern part of the 
state, and discharges itself into the sea about two miles 
below Newbury port. Charles River which rises from 
several sources in Hopkinton and Holliston ridges, passes 
by Cambridge, and falls into Boston harbour. Taunton 
river rising in the blue mountains, passes nearly in a strait 
south-west course to Tiverton on Narragansett-bay. Con¬ 
cord, Mistic, Medford, Deerfield, Ipswich, and Westfield are 
all rivers of this state but of inferior note. The principal bays 
are Boston Bay, Cape Cod and Buzzard’s bay ; and the only 
islands worthy of notice are Martha’s vineyard, and Nan¬ 
tucket : the latter is principally inhabited by fishermen, and 
has produced some of the most expert and enterprising 
whalemen in the world. The soil is very little better than 
a sand heap, and the inhabitants amount to about 5,600: 
they are chiefly of the society of Friends,and are distinguish¬ 
ed for the peace and harmony that prevails among them. 

Mountains. The principal ranges of mountains 
are in the western part of the state, and furnish most of 


466 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


the springs that feed Connecticut river. There are none 
remarkably high, the most elevated called Wachesset, be¬ 
ing about 3000 feet above the level of the sea. They run 
pretty nearly in a north and south direction, nearly parallel 
■with the course of the river above mentioned. 

Vegetable, Animal and Mineral Productions. 
The forest trees of Massachusetts are the same as those 
of Vermont, and the other New England states. Most of 
the valuable fruit trees flourish here, particularly the apple, 
the pear, and the peach, though the latter has suffered, as 
it has in most of the other states, from the ravages of a 
grub that attacks its roots : and in some situations by the 
eastern winds. The principal grains that are produced are 
Indian corn, rye, barley and oats, and some wheat from the 
new lands, in the western parts of the state : potatoes, hops, 
field beans, and peas are raised in plentiful crops, as well as 
most of the useful kinds of grass ; to the cultivation of the 
latter the soil and climate of Massachusetts are well adapted. 
T. here is some iron ore in the state but not very good : a 
valuable copper mine has been discovered in Hampshire 
county ; and in other parts red and yellow ochre, slate, 
limestone, and asbestos. But Massachusetts’ most valuable 
mines are the fisheries. 


MAIN. 

MAIN is a district of Massachusetts, and of course sub¬ 
ject to the same laws and government. It extends about 
300 miles in length and about 100 in breadth, and is bound¬ 
ed on the N. W. by the high lands which separate the 
rivers that fall into the St. Lawrence, from those that run 
into the Atlantic ; on the E. by the river St. Croix, and a 
line drawn due N. from its source to the said high lands, 
which divides the Main from Nova Scotia ; on the S. E. by 
the Atlantic ; and on the W. by N. Hampshire, lving be¬ 
tween the 43° and 48° of north latitude. It is divided into 
six counties, and has about 1 50,000 inhabitants. The chief 
town is Portland, a seaport, containing about 3,700 inha¬ 
bitants : the principal trade is in fish and lumber. This 
is a broken mountainous country, but possesses some very 
rich lands, and is advancing rapidly in improvements, which 
vvid probably give it a title, in a few years, to independence 


RHODE ISLAND. 


467 


and self-government. The inhabitants having emigrated 
from Massachusetts and the other N. £. states, partake of 
their manners, customs and character. Being situated to 
the north of all the other states, and bounded on the N. W 
by a range of high mountains, the climate is cold, the rivers 
and lakes being commonly frozen over from Christmas to 

the middle of March. Nor are the summers free from 
excessive heat. 


RHODE ISLAND. 


Extent-and Boundaries. THIS state includes 
what was formerly called Rhode Island and Providence 
plantations, and is situated between 4 1 9 and 42 Q north lati- 
tiide, and between 3° and 42 degrees east longitude from 
Philadelphia, or about 71° west from London, being in 

length 47, and breadth 37 miles ; in superficial contents 
about 1300 square miles. 

Original Population. Rhode Island was origi¬ 
nally the hunting and fishing ground of the Narragansett 
Indians, and was conveyed by them between the years 1634 
and 1638 to certain English settlers, who fled hither from 
the intolerant spirit of the Massachusetts rulers. Those 
puritans, who, rather than conform to the ritual of the Epis¬ 
copal church, had fled to the wilds of America, were no 
sooner invested with power than they persecuted all who 
could not swallow their formulary, with more crueltv than 
themselves had suffered under the mitred bigots of Eng¬ 
land. Roger Williams, a very respectable clergyman, 
being condemned for holding a variety of speculative errors 
was banished from Massachusetts, and afterwards from 
Plymouth, whither he first fled for asylum. He then re¬ 
moved to Providence, without the precincts of Massachu¬ 
setts, and was entertained with great hospitality by the 
natives, who granted a tract of land to him and his brother 
exiles, about twenty in number. These were followed 



463 


RHODE ISLAND. 


soon after by another small company, who settled on 
Rhode Island, with the best of titles, the free permission 
*f the aboriginal proprietors. The first chief magistrate 
of this little community was a Mr. Coddington, who was 
elected by the people, and in consideration of his distin¬ 
guished virtues, was invested with a patriarchal authority 
Memorable Events. 1 . The settlement of the 
Rev. Roger Williams and his followers at Providence, in 
1634—5, and of Mr. Coddington and his company on Rhode 
Island. 

2. An agent from the company was sent to England, in 
1643, and obtained a patent for the province, from the earl 
of Warwick and council, under the title of, “ A free and 
absolute charter of civil incorporation, for Providence Plan¬ 
tations in Narragansett bay.” 

3. As the inhabitants had felt the rod of persecution, they 
were wise enough to establish a free toleration, and perfect 
equality for all religious societies. In the year 1644 the 
Baptists built a meeting house at Providence, and another 
congregation of the same sect was formed in 165 3. The 
peaceable Quakers also found in this colony an asylum 
which was refused to them in every other part of New 
England. 

4. The above said patent lasted till the restoration, when 
the company obtained a charter from King Charles II. in 
u663, under the style and title of I he English colony of 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in New England” 
‘—■and this charter has been the ground work of their civil 
government from that to the present time. 

5. In 17 10, the colony raised a company of soldiers to 
assist in the abortive expedition against Canada, and in the 
same year they issued the first emission of paper currency. 

6. In 1738, the colony was filled with inhabitants, and 
there were above 100 sail of vessels belonging to the town 
of Newport. 

7. In 1744, there was another emission of 160,000/. (old 
tenor) distributed among the people by law, at four per 
cent, per ann. which soon depreciated. 

8. In 1750, the former emissions, followed by another 
more enormous, the whole amounting to 525,335/. (old 
tenor) which completely ruined the credit of paper money, 
as well as the moral character of the people. 


RHODE ISLAND. 


469 


9. In 1773, a violent outrage committed on the Gaspee, 
an armed schooner belonging to his Britannic majesty, 
stationed at Providence to prevent smuggling. The crime 
of smuggling was the peculiar sin of New England, and 
was as operative in bringing about the revolution as any 
other single cause ; and perhaps the same motive, united 
with a fondness for the African trade, had some effect in 
producing, in the state of Rhode Island, so strong an oppo¬ 
sition to the adoption of the Federal Constitution. 

10. Two delegates appointed to meet the first general 
congress at Philadelphia, August 10, 1774. 

11. Federal Constitution ratified by a small majority 
(34 against 32) on 29th of May, 1790. 

Religion. In this state ail religious sects are on 
a basis of perfect equality. The people pay no taxes for 
the support of any denomination : the ministers depend 
wholly on the liberality of their hearers for support, as no 
contract formed between them is valid in law. The most 
numerous sect is that of the baptists, who are subdivided 
into Calvinistic, Arminian, and Sabbatarian, or seventh day 
baptists. All together they constitute thirty congregations: 
the other religious sects are congregationaiists, friends or 
quakers, moravians, &c. 

Government and Laws. It is a little remark¬ 
able that when the American revolution set so many con¬ 
stitution-mongers to work in all the states, except this and 
Connecticut, that these two should be satisfied with their 
ancient forms of government, derived from their respective 
royal charters. But this circumstance proves that the 
people were happy under their ancient regime, and that 
their rulers thought if any changes were necessary, they 
might be introduced occasionally, without combating in¬ 
veterate habits and prejudices—1 he charter granted by 
king Charles II. to this colony was dated in 1663. By this 
instrument the freemen elect their executive chief (who 
is stiled governor) and a deputy governor, annually. He 
must be a resident, and freeholder in the state, and may 
be re-elected as long as the majority pleases. By virtue of 
his office, he is president of the court of assistants, but 
has only a single vote ; with the concurrence of the two 
houses he appoints and commissions all the judiciary and 
executive officers of government, except the secretary and 


470 


RHODE ISLAND. 


treasurer, who are elected by the freemen. With the 
same limitation he may remove for misconduct, and fill 
vacancies by new appointments.—The legislative authority 
is lodged in the General Assembly , which comprises two 
branches ; the court of Assistance , consisting of 10 mem¬ 
bers who form the upper council, and the Representatives , 
consisting of 70 members who constitute the lower house. 
Both are elected by the freemen ; the former annually and 
the latter semi-annually. The qualifications requisite in 
both, are a residence in the state, and a freehold worth 40/. 
or an annual rent of forty shillings—Conjointly with the 
governor they make and repeal laws, and may award new 
trials in courts of judicature.—There are five judges of the 
Supreme court who hold their offices during good beha¬ 
viour. This court extends over the state and is held twice 
a year. In each county there are courts of Common Pleas 
and Quarter Sessions, held also twice a year for the trial 
of inferior matters. Rhode Island sends two Senators and 
two Representatives to the general Congress. Senators 
are appointed by a joint ballot of the two houses : Repre¬ 
sentatives are elected by a majority of the people. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. The state 
of Rhode Island comprises five counties, which are sub¬ 
divided into thirty townships, containing together 69,12‘j in¬ 
habitants, of whom 380 are slaves. Of these 30,847 are 
under 16 years, and 35,591 above. The population is 
about 53 persons to a square mile. The increase of inha¬ 
bitants in this state during the last 10 years is very insigni¬ 
ficant (not quite 300) owing to an excessive emigration to 
Vermont and other new states. In no point of view has 
Rhode Island gained by the American revolution. Her 
form of government is unchanged ; she chooses all her own 
officers, and makes her own laws; so she did formerly ; but 
her trade and commerce are retrogade, and her population 
almost stationary. Between the years 1730 and 1748,her 
increase of people was in a ratio of duplication in 2 1 years, 
and from 1761 to 1774 in something less than 28 years. 
From the last period to the present time, an interval of 30 
years, she has not gained 10,000 inhabitants, and her for¬ 
mer metropolis, one of the finest harbours in the United 
States, famed foi its mild and salubrious air, as well as the 
hospitality of its inhabitants, is mouldering into ruins. 


RHODE ISLAND. 


471 


Language, Manners and Customs. The lan¬ 
guage of this as well as all the other North-American 
States is English. The urbanity and hospitality of the 
Rhode Islanders, have often been noticed to their praise. 

ne women are distinguished no less for their domestic 
virtues, than their fine persons and delicate complexions, 
i an are the men less remarkable for enormous emissions 
ot paper money, and iniquitous tender laws, which have 
contributed not a little to the general declension of the 
state. 

Seminaries of Learning. The principal semi¬ 
nal y is a college at Providence. It was incorporated in 
1764, by an act of the general assembly, framed upon 
the most liberal principles. A due proper don of the trus¬ 
tees are to be chosen, i w fierfieluum, from the various deno¬ 
minations of baptists, friends, episcopalians, and congre- 
gadonalists, with this single distinction, that the president 
must always be a baptist. The number of fellows is 12 ; 
the professors and other officers of instruction are chosen 
promiscuously out of any religious denomination. The 
edifice is situated on an eminence to the east of the town ; 
i* built of brick, four stories high, 150 feet long by 46 
wide ; and contains 48 rooms for students, besides eight 
larger ones for public uses. Nearly all the funds of the 
institution are placed at interest in the treasury of the 
state, and amount to about 2000/. 

There is also a flourishing academy at Newport, where 
the learned languages, English grammar, geography, &c. 
are taught. But some writers have observed, that the edu¬ 
cation of youth has not been attended to as assiduously in 
Rhode Island, as in the other New England states. 

Chief I owns. The only towns in this state worthy 
of notice, are Newport and Providence. The first of these, 
which was formerly the seat of government, was founded 
in the year 1639, almost half a century before Philadelphia* 
The situation is beautiful, and its harbour one of the finest 
in the world, capable of containing a large fleet at safe an¬ 
chorage, but though it possesses these natural advantages 
and once flourished in arts and commerce, it is now 
visibly on the decline. The houses amount to about 1000, 
which are principally of wood, and the inhabitants 6739. 
It has nine edifices for public worship, a state house, 


472 


RHODE ISLAND. 


and a public library, all the production of more prosper¬ 
ous days. The library was founded, in the year 1747, 
by Abraham Redwood who presented the institution with 
1294 volumes, valued at 500/. sterling: in honour of 
its munificent patron, it is styled the Redwood librarxj. 
The building consists of one large room, 36 feet long, 
26 feet broad, and 19 feet high, with two small offices 
adjoining which form the wings of the principal edifice. 
This part has a portico supported by four columns, and 
the entrance into the library is by a flight of steps 
the whole width of the portico. But this elegant building 
is at present much out of repair, and a large proportion of 
what was once a very valuable collection of books is dispers¬ 
ed and lost. 

Providence, which is now the seat of government, is si¬ 
tuated on the main, about 30 miles N. W. of Newport. 
According to the census of 1800, it then contained a few 
more than 7000 inhabitants. This is by far the most flou¬ 
rishing town in the state : it enjoys a considerable foreign 
commerce, as well as inland trade, being surrounded by a 
rich and highly cultivated country. Its chief public build¬ 
ings are a college, besides four or five places of public wor¬ 
ship : one of them belonging to the baptists, is a very 
respectable edifice. In this town is a bank and insurance 
company. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The most 
considerable manufactures in Rhode Island are of iron, as 
bar and sheet iron, nail rods, anchors, S^c. They distil large 
quantities of rum, most of which is shipped to the coast of 
Africa ; they manufacture paper, chocolate, cotton and 
wool cards, and have lately established a considerable manu- 
factory of cotton, where they weave jeans, fustins, denims, 
Sqt. The export trade of the state consists principally of 
yhcese, barley, flaxseed, lumber, fish, horses, cattle and 
rum, which in 1802 amounted to 2,433,263 dollars. The 
/imports are of European, blast and West India goods, to a 
still greater amount ; but the loss of the very profitable cir¬ 
cuitous commerce which Rhode Island enjoyed, while under 
the British government, lias been severely felt, as is evidenc¬ 
ed by the numerous emigrations of its inhabitants. 

Climate and Seasons. The air of Rhode Island 
is remarkably salubrious. Newport has long been the re¬ 
sort of valetudinarians, particularly from all the southern 


RHODE ISLAND. 


473 


states, both heat and cold being moderated by the great 
body of surrounding salt water. 

Soil and Agriculture. The soil of this state 
seems better adapted in general, for pasture than for grain. 
It is noted therefore for its large flocks of sheep and herds 
of black cattle ; its dairies, its butter and cheese of the first 
quality, many tons of the latter being exported every year, 
to the neighbouring states, and the West India Islands. 
The land, nevertheless, produces corn, rye, barley, oats, 
flax, and most of the culinary vegetables, in great abund¬ 
ance and perfection. 

Rivers, Bays and Islands. The two principal 
rivers in this state, are Providence and Taunton. On the 
former of these is built the town of Providence, about 30 
miles above Narragansett bay ; the other is navigable by 
small craft as far as Taunton, the town from which it takes 
its name. Narragansett bay runs up from the sea, nearly 
in a north and south direction, and encompasses several fer¬ 
tile islands, particularly Conanicul and Prudence , both of 
which suffered considerably by the depredations of the 
American war. 

Mountains. The only remarkable eminence in 
this state is Mount Hope, within the precincts of the town 
of Bristol, which was once the royal seat of King Philip, 
and the place where he was killed, after having waged a 
destructive war for many years, against the early settlers 
of New England. 

Vegetable, Animal and Mineral Productions. 
Besides tke crops of common grain, such as wheat, rye, 
and Indian corn, of which this state produces sufficient for 
home consumption, it is distinguished for its rich meadows, 
and productive orchards ; its large cattle, and excellent 
dairies, and its cyder, superior to most that is made in the 
United States. There is a part of the state remarkable 
also, for breeding a race of fleet pacing horses, as valuable 
for their speed, as for their hardiness in enduring the fa¬ 
tigues of a long journey. 


2 r r 


CONNECTICUT. 


Extent and Situation. THIS State extends 
from 41° to 42° 2’ of N. latitude, and from 1° 50’, to 3°- 
2 5 J of E. longitude from Philadelphia, or from 71° 30’ to 
73° 15', W. from London, being bounded on the north by- 
Massachusetts ; on the east by Rhode Island ; on the south 
by the sound which separates it from Long Island ; and on 
the west by the state of New York. It contains about 4674 
square miles, equal to about 2,960,000 acres. 

Original Population. This territory, the an¬ 
cient patrimony of savage tribes among which those of 
the Pequod nation were the most powerful, appears to 
have been first planted by the Hollanders, and was claim¬ 
ed by them as long as they held Manhattan, or New York. 
Before the arrival of the English, a company of Dutch 
traders landed, and built a small fort at Hartford, which 
they fortified with two cannon, but they were soon expell¬ 
ed by a party of emigrants from Massachusetts and Ply¬ 
mouth. 

Memorable Events. Connecticut river entered, 
a settlement formed, and a fort built by the Dutch at the 
place now called Hartford, sometime before 1633. 

In 1633. Claimed by Massachusetts—possession taken 
by force, and a trading house built at Windsor. 

In 1 635. Another settlement made at Wethersfield, by 
a small colony from England which was highly resented by 
the Windsorians as an encroachment. 

> In 1636. The colony is encreased by Mr. Hooker and 
his followers from Massachusetts. The permission for 
removal granted on condition of their still continuing under 
the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, although the country 
was confessedly without the limits of that colony, the ge¬ 
neral court contending that an oath of allegiance to the 
commonwealth was still binding, although a person re¬ 
moved from its territory. 

In 1637. Mew Haven settled by a colony from England, 
led by Eaten and Davenport, under a separate jurisdiction : 


CONNECTICUT. 


4 75 


this little community made the sacred scripture the ground 
work of their civil and religious ordinances. 

In this year broke out a war with the Pequods, a power¬ 
ful tribe of Indians, seated on Connecticut river, which 
ended the same year with the almost total destruction of the 
tribe. The men of Connecticut attacked an Indian town 
at the head of Mystic river, that was surrounded with a 
Pallisado. The wigwams were fired during the engage¬ 
ment, many perished in the flames, and those who at¬ 
tempted to escape over the wall were shot by the English 
and Indian allies. Of the prisoners, “ about 30 men were 
turned into Charon’s ferry boat, under the command of 
Skipper Gallop,” says Parson Hubbard ; of the women 
and children some were sold as slaves, and others given to 
the Indian confederates. 

In 1643. An union of the four New England colonies of 
Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Haven. 

In 166 3. Charter granted by King Charles II. to the 
colony of Connecticut, which included the territories claim¬ 
ed by New Haven : contest took place between the two co¬ 
lonies in consequence ; but was soon terminated by an 
union of both under one government. 

In 1704. Pass a law to banish Quakers, and to forbid all 
persons to read their books : repealed by the Queen. 

In 1713. The boundary line between Massachusetts and 
Connecticut adjusted to mutual satisfaction. 

On complaints presented to the King, against various dis¬ 
orders which had taken place in New England, he resolv¬ 
ed to resume their charters: a writ of quo warranto was 
granted against Connecticut among the rest *. while the 
King’s commissioner and the assembly were debating on 
the subject, the charter was secreted and conveyed away ; 
and by this means it was preserved. After the revolution 
in England the charter was confirmed by William and 
Mary. 

In 1731. The division between New York and Connec¬ 
ticut finally settled ; by which the latter ceded 60,000 acres 
called Oblong, in exchange for Greenwich which was more 
convenient, being on the sound. 

1753. t he government of Connecticut claimed a large 
tract of land on the Susquehanna, within the limits of 
Pennsylvania. 


476 


CONNECTICUT. 


1754. Connecticut company purchase a piece of land of 
the Six Nations, at Wyoming in Pennsylvania. 

A county formed, and courts established in Pennsylva¬ 
nia, under the authority of Connecticut. 

1762. Settlements made in Pennsylvania on Connecticut 
titles. 

1776. Four delegates nominated to attend the general 
Congress at Philadelphia, June 3, 1774. 

1782. The dispute with Pennsylvania submitted to Con¬ 
gress, and determined by a committee against Connecticut, 
they reporting that all the lands in dispute lie within the 
boundary of Pennsylvania. But as the settlers on the 
Connecticut titles claimed the right of the soil, they refused 
to remove, and the dispute remains unsettled. 

1786. The slate of Connecticut still claimed lands 
west of Pennsylvania, within their northern and southern 
limits, but made a cession of the whole to Congress, with 
a reserve of about half a million of acres which has been 
disposed of for the benefit of the state. 

Federal Constitution ratified January 9, 1788, by a ma¬ 
jority of 128 to 40. 

Rfligion. The religious establishment very si¬ 
milar to that of Massachusetts. The Congregationalists 
the most numerous, and next to these the Episcopalians. 
The state is divided into parishes which are all incorporat¬ 
ed, and choose theiy own ministers to whose maintenance 
all the inhabitants are obliged to contribute. 

OoviiKNMhNT and Laws. The royal charter 
granted by King Charles II. is the basis of the existing 
constitution of this state, which is a tacit confession that it 
is well adapted to the temper and wants of the people, and 
that they had lived happily under it, before the revolution. 
By this constitution the executive power is lodged in a go¬ 
vernor who is chosen annually by the people, but his 
power is very limited : the principal officers of the govern¬ 
ment are either appointed by the general court, or elected 
by the people, and they receive their commissions only 
from the governor. He presides in the chamber of assis¬ 
tants and has a casting vote, when there is an equality.— 
The legislature is divided into two branches ; consisting of 
twelve assistants called the council, chosen annually, and 
a house of representatives, or deputies, elected semi-annu- 


CONNECTICUT. 


477 


ally by the several towns. They meet twice a year, at 
Hartford and New Haven alternately. Each house has a 
negative on the other, but this has very rarely interrupted 
the procedure of public business. 

All the towns are incorporated, and elect their own mu¬ 
nicipal officers annually ; among these are the select men, 
who are a very useful body, being designed to superintend 
and regulate the manners of the people. 

All the qualifications required in an elector, or the 
highest officer, are a residence in the state, full age, 
and an estate in freehold worth seven dollars per annum, 
or any other property to the value of 134 dollars. A very 
slight security against the designs of corrupt, or the mis¬ 
takes of ignorant men 1 

The laws are administered by a cheap and well orga¬ 
nised judiciary, which consists of a superior court that pre¬ 
sides over the whole state ; county courts for the trial of 
causes not exceeding seventy dollars ; and justices of the 
peace who hear and decide all cases, civil and criminal, 
when the demand is not above seven dollars. But in case 
of appeal from the Supreme court, causes of importance 
may be retried in a court of Errors which is held yearly 
at the seat of government. 

Civil Divisions, Population and Militia. The 
state is divided into eight counties, and those again are sub¬ 
divided into 111 townships, containing about 252,000 inha¬ 
bitants, of whom nearly 1000 are slaves. 1 he popula¬ 
tion is 54 persons to a square mile. Of these 111,308 are 
under 16 years, and 133,413 above 16 years of age. This 
state though the most populous in the union increased 
more in the last 16 years before the revolution, than it has 
in any twenty years since.—The militia is well disciplin¬ 
ed, and consists of thirty five regiments. 

Language, Manners and Customs. The New 
England states, having the same origin, and being planted 
about the same time, except Vermont, resemble one ano¬ 
ther in their language, manners and customs. The same 
mode of settlement in small townships, with a market town 
or village in the centre, is observable in them all, as well as 
the numerous small towns scattered in every direction 
which naturally grew out of such an arrangement. 

Seminareis of Learning. In no part of the 
union is education on a better footing than in this state, 


478 


CONNECTICUT. 


early provision having been made by the government for 
this very important purpose. The schools for a common 
English education are very numerous, as every town or vil¬ 
lage of a certain size, is obliged to support a school master, 
to teach the children reading, writing and accounts, and 
the tutors in general are persons of irreproachable moral 
characters. A subject which has been too much neglected 
in the middle and southern states. 

There are many academies and grammar schools for 
teaching the higher branches of learning, some of them 
supported by a public tax, and others by private contribu¬ 
tions. The principal are those at Plainfield, Colchester, 
New Haven, and Litchfield. Yale college at New Haven, 
is the principal seminary in the state ; it was founded in 
1700. The present edifice which is of brick was built in 
1750, being 100 feet wide, 40 feet deep, three stories high 
and containing 32 rooms, a chapel and museum. It is fur¬ 
nished with a very complete philosophical apparatus and 
a library of 2500 volumes. It is well endowed and has 
commonly from 150 to 250 students of various grades. 

Chief Towns. The principal towns of Connecti¬ 
cut, are Plartford, New Haven, New London, Norwich, and 
Middleton ; these are incorporated, and their internal con¬ 
cerns are governed by a mayor and aldermen. Hartford, 
(which is the seat of government interchangeably with New 
Haven) is suituated on the Connecticut river, about 40 miles 
from the sea, and contained at the last enumeration 5347 
inhabitants. T. here are 300 dwelling houses, six places of 
public worship, three of which belong to the Congregation- 
alists, and a state or court house : it is a thriving commer¬ 
cial and manufacturing town. New Haven lies at the head 
of a small bay that makes up from the sound : in 1800 it 
had 500 houses principally wooden buildings, but neat and 
commodious, and 5 157 inhabitants. In the centre of the 
city is a public square round which are erected for the prin¬ 
cipal part of the public buildings, viz. state house, college, 
chapel, and three or four places of public worship ; round 
the square, and in many of the streets, trees are planted, 
which add much to the beauty and rural appearance of this 
little metropolis. It must be a very healthy situation as 
only about one in 70 of the inhabitants die annually. 

New London stands on the river Thames, formerly the 
requod river, a name derived from a powerful tribe of 


CONNECTICUT. 


479 


Indians who formerly lived on its banks. This tribe is ex¬ 
tinct, between three or four hundred having been destroyed 

y the white inhabitants by fire and sword in one engage- 
menu the town has about 5000 inhabitants. Norwich is at 
, head of the nver Thames, about 14 miles above New 
Eondon, and contains about 3500 inhabitants ; and Middle- 
ton on the river Connecticut, has about 5000. The other 
towns and villages in Connecticut are less consideraole, 

lough pretty numerous, and generally consists of neat 
wooden buildings. 

Manufactures and Commerce. Although the 
farmers ot Connecticut make both linen and woollen cloths 
tor the use of their families, the inhabitants of the cities 
an towns aiecloathed principally with foreign manufac¬ 
tures. But they manufacture considerable quantities of bar 
iron, nails and nail-rods, cannon, anchors and hollow ware, 
paper, powder, and wool cards. The country is famous 
also for wooden wares, such as bowls, dishes, &c. and for 
large dairies of excellent cheese, some of it superior to 
what is made in any other state. 

1 he principal external trade of Connecticut is maintain¬ 
ed with its sister states, and with none so largely as with 
New York. It has nevertheless a foreign trade with the 
West Indies and some few vessels that sail to the East In¬ 
dies and the Mediterranean. The chief articles exported 
are beef, pork, and live stock, butter, cheese, onions, pota¬ 
toes, flaxseed, and pot and pearl ashes. The value of ex- 
ports in 1802, was , 1606,809 dollars, and the amount of 
shipping 32,867 tons. The greatest part of the supplies of 
foreign goods comes through the channel of New York. 

Climate, Seasons, Soil add Agriculture. The 
climate and seasons of Connecticut differ not much from 
those ot Massachusetts. As it has a considerable extent of 
sea coast, the variations of the weather are rendered more 
frequent thereby. In general this state enjoys a clear and 
salubrious air; many of the inhabitants live to a good old 
age, one in thirteen to the age of 80, and one in thirty 
to the age of 90. The longest day is 15 hours, and the 
shortest 8 hours 58 minutes. As the face of Connecticut 
is broken by numerous hills and mountains it abounds in 
sli earns of water; the land is various, some thin and barren, 
but much oi it strong and fertile, well adapted to grazing and 


480 


CONNECTICUT. 


dairies, for which this state is famous. The principal 
productions are Indian corn, rye, oats, barley, flax, tur¬ 
nips, potatoes, peas, beans, and fruits of various sorts ; nu¬ 
merous droves of neat cattle and horses are driven from 
this country annually : and many horses, mules, and asses 
are exported yearly to the West Indies, from the port of 
New London. 

Mountains and Rivers. Although Connecticut 
has many hills and small mountains, there are none very 
large or worthy of particular delineation.—The principal 
river is the Connecticut, from which the state has borrow¬ 
ed its name. This stream has its head springs in the high 
lands that divide Lower Canada and New Hampshire, and 
after passing through the state near 300 miles in a south¬ 
erly direction, discharges itself into the sound near Say- 
brook. The Housatonic rises from two branches in the 
county of Berkshire, Massachusetts, and passing through 
a well settled country in a course of 100 miles, unites with 
the sound between Stratford and Milford. The Pequod or 
Thames is navigable as high as Norwich, which is about 
14 miles from the sound ; it forms the excellent harbour 
of New London. 

The -vegetable and animal productions of Connecticut are 
very similar to those of Massachusetts, already described. 

Revenue and Lxpences. The revenues of this 
state are managed with great economy : they arise princi¬ 
pally from a capitation tax, and assessments on real and 
personal estates,which were estimated at 5,1 12,893 dollars 
in the year 1787 : since that period the value must have 
increased much. The expences of the government or 
civil list were 9767 dollars in the year 1803, including the 
salaries of the governor, lieutenant-governor, chief justice, 
and five assistant judges ; the treasurer, comptroller, coun¬ 
cil, and secretary of state. If the compensation of the other 
officers, omitted, amount to as much more, the whole will 
be 19,534 dollars. Before the revolution the whole ex¬ 
penditure amounted to 4000/. sterling, which is equal to 
17,778 dollars, or about seven cents per head on the exist¬ 
ing population. 


NEW YORK. 


Extent and Situation. THIS state lies be¬ 
tween 40° 40' and 45° N. latitude, and between 5° W. 
and 1° 30' E. longitude from Philadelphia, or between 73° 
and 80° W. from London; being bounded by Connecti¬ 
cut, Massachusetts, and Vermont on the east; on the 
south-east by the Atlantic ocean; on the north by Cana¬ 
da; on the north-west by the river St. Lawrence and the 
lakes Ontario and Erie; and on the south and south-west 
by New Jersey and Pennsylvania. It contains 44,000 
square miles, equal to 28,160,000 acres. 

Original Population. Great part of the terri¬ 
tory of this state was the ancient inheritance of the Iro¬ 
quois or Five Nations, and a few other inferior tribes who 
dwelt nearer to the bay and Long Island sound. There 
are a few families of the Five Nations, still surviving, and 
there is therefore a small portion of the soil which they 
have not yet alienated. The first European settlers were 
Hollanders, who purchased the maps, charts, and other 
papers of Capt. Hudson, who, in the year 1608, had ex¬ 
plored the coast and sailed up the North river as far as 
Albany, calling it Hudson’s river, after his own name. 

Memorable Events. In 1614 the Dutch built a 
fort near Albany which they called Fort Orange, and the 
States General granted a charter to the West India com¬ 
pany for an exclusive trade up the North river. 

In the same year, they are summoned by captain Ar¬ 
gali, under a commission from the governor of Virginia, 
to surrender the government to the king of Great Britain* 
Unable to make any effectual resistance, they prudently 
submit; but being reinforced the next year, they revolted 
and built a fort at the point of Manhattan, now York Island, 
and thereby laid the foundation of the city of New York, 
naming it New Amsterdam, after the metropolis of the 
Dutch confederacy in Europe. 





482 


NEW YORK. 


In 1621, the sovereignty of the country was granted by 
the States General to the West India company. 

The Dutch possessed it till 1664, when it was surren¬ 
dered to the English, and was confirmed to them by the 
ensuing treaty of peace in 1667, in exchange for Surrinam 
in South America. 

In 1673, the Hollanders recovered possession of the 
country by the treachery of the English commander, but 
after they had held it about eight months, it reverted once 
more to the English, was confirmed by the treaty of West¬ 
minster, and continued under their government till the 
American revolution. 

From 1664 to 1683, the sovereignty was vested in the 
duke of York (afterwards king James II.) and all the go¬ 
vernors received their commissions from him. 

The people being dissatisfied with the administration of 
col. Dougan, one Jacob Leisler, a popular character among 
them, seized the government for king William and queen 
Mary, in 1689. 

In 1690, the French from Canada, aided by a body of 
savages, made a sudden incursion into the province, and 
penetrated as far as Skenectady; where they found the in¬ 
habitants in their beds, and butchered them with the most 
wanton cruelty, spreading terror and devastation to the 
gaies ol Albany. 1 hey then returned to their own terri¬ 
tory loaded with plunder. This expedition was marked 
with that savage ferocity which has always disgraced the 
Gallic arms, from the days of Brennus to those of Bona¬ 
parte. 

Under the administration of colonel Fletcher, in 1693, 
a tax was imposed for the building of churches and the 
maintenance of episcopal ministers, which caused general 
dissatisfaction among the dissenters; although themselves 
had set the example in Massachusetts, and persisted in it 
with undeviating rigour. 

. ln 170 °, a law wa s enacted against popish priests and 
jssuits, to prevent their exercising the ministerial functions 
m the province, under the penalty of perpetual imprison¬ 
ment. I his law, though never enforced, remained unre¬ 
pealed till the American revolution. 

In 1710, about 3000 Palatines, who had fled to England 
irom domestic persecution, were transported to New York; 


NEW YORK. 


483 


many of whom settled about the country afterwards called 
the German flats. 

In 1.20, a law was passed to prevent the sale of Indian 
goods to the French of Canada, which, though a just and 
politic measure, caused great dissatisfaction among the 
merchants, a class of men always distinguished, more or 
less, for a sordid attachment to private interest. 

i his act was repealed in 1729, and the effects were 
speedily evinced, by the rapid advancement of the French 
commerce at Niagara, and a proportionate decline in the 
English trading houses at Oswego. 

In 1763, a dispute originated between New York and 
New Hampshire, respecting the territory now called Ver¬ 
mont, and then denominated the New Hampshire grants. 

In 1764, Vermont was divided into counties, and large 
tracts sold by the government of New York: opposed by 
other grants from New Hampshire. This gave rise to a 
long series of confusion and riots. 

In 1774, New York passed a law declaring it felony in 
the intruders, to oppose the government by force. 

Four delegates from the city and part of the province 
are appointed to meet the general congress at Philadel¬ 
phia, in 1774. 

State constitution framed April 20, 1777, revised in 
1801, but no considerable alterations made. 

Federal constitution ratified July 25, 1788, by a majority 
of 30 to 25. 

Religion. The religious societies in this state are 
very numerous, there being an universal toleration. Mi¬ 
nisters of every denomination are maintained by them¬ 
selves, or by their own people, principally by voluntary 
contributions and pew money. By a special act of the state 
each society is or may be incorporated, and may appoint 
officers to manage the secular concerns of the community. 
The episcopal church in New York, and several Dutch 
churches in different parts of the commonwealth, possess 
considerable estates: but the Calvinistic sects are much 
the most numerous. The English Presbyterians and 
Dutch Reformed churches embrace two thirds of the in¬ 
habitants of this central and populous state. 

Government and Laws. The executive power 
is vested in a governor, who is elected triennially by citizens 
who possess freeholds v'orth 100/. currency, clear of in- 


484 


NEW YORK. 


cumbrances, and can prove a residence in their several 
districts, six months prior to the time of election. He is 
authorized to grant pardons for all offences except murder 
and treason, in which cases he may respite punishment un¬ 
til the next session of assembly. As president of the coun¬ 
cil of revision, he may, with their consent, negative bills, 
unless two thirds of both houses of legislature, on revision, 
resolve to enact; he presides also in the council of appoint¬ 
ment, w here he has a casting vote.- - There is a lieute¬ 

nant-governor who is chosen at the same time, and by the 
same electors as the governor. In case of vacancy, this 
officer acts as governor, and he is always president of the 
senate.-The council of revision consists of the gover¬ 

nor, the chancellor, and the chief justice of the state for 

the time being.-The council of appointment are chosen 

by the assembly from the senate or upper house, annually, 
and cannot serve two years successively. 

The legislature consists of two branches, viz. The As¬ 
sembly or lower house which has 70 members, and is elect¬ 
ed once a year; and the Senate , consisting of 24 members 
■who are elected quadrennially, with an annual rotation of 
one fourth.—None but freeholders are eligible to the Se¬ 
nate ; as to the qualifications of the members of assembly 
the constitution is silent.—In the choice of Senators, none 
but freeholders worth 100/. are entitled to vote, but in the 
election of assembly, every man who has resided six 
months, paid taxes, and a rent of 405. per annum, pos¬ 
sesses the right of suffrage.-The statute and common 

law of England are declared to be the law of the state.— 
Clergymen are universally exempted from office. 

The judges are appointed by the governor and council 
of appointment, and hold their offices during good beha¬ 
viour, until the age of sixty when the constitution requires 

them to resign.-The highest court is composed of the 

Senate, the chancellor, and the chief judge, who are em¬ 
powered to try impeachments, and to correct the errors of 
inferior tribunals. There is also a court of equity in which 
the chancellor presides; a supreme court which rotates 
between New York and Albany; and county courts held 
in every county of the commonwealth, for the administra¬ 
tion of justice in common cases.-This state sends two 

Senators, and seventeen Representatives to Congress. Se¬ 
nators are appointed by a concurrent vote of both houses; 







NEW YORK. 


485 


if they disagree, by a joint ballot. Representatives by a 
plurality of the people in districts. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. The com¬ 
monwealth of New York is divided into 32 counties, and 
280 townships, which in 1800 possessed a population of 
586,000 persons, of whom 20,000 were slaves. This on 
a surface of 44,000 square miles, is about 13 persons to 
every mile. Since the close of the American war this 
state has increased amazingly, owing to an extraordinary 
emigration from Europe and the eastern states. Between 
that period and the year 1800 the number of inhabitants 
was doubled. One half of the population is under 16 years 
of age, and the males exceed the females of all ages by 
almost 10,000. The militia of the state in the year 1800 
was 64,000 infantry, besides cavalry and artillery. 

Revenue and Expenses. The confiscation of the 
estates of the numerous and wealthy loyalists in the state 
of New York threw a large sum of money into the public 
treasury. By economical management of this and other 
means, this member of the union is comparatively rich. 
In the year 1795, they possessed stock in the various funds 
of the general government, to the value of 2,000,000 dol¬ 
lars, besides near 350,000 dollars in their own treasury, 
and numerous shares in the several banks, canals, See. 
The annual produce of this capital renders the taxes on 
the people very light, and enables the state to patronise all 
laubable public undertakings. In 1791 the expenses ol the 
city and county of New York was 26,000 dollars, which 
might be about one fourth of the annual expenses of the 
state. They are probably higher at present. 

Manners, Customs and Language. The Eng¬ 
lish language is perhaps more corrupted in the state of 
New York than any other, by a foreign accent and idioms, 
though this unfavourable distinction is wearing off every 
year, by the increase of English schools, and the happy ex¬ 
tinction of national prejudice. Still there are settlements 
within a few miles of the city of New York, where the Eng¬ 
lish language is never spoken, except by travellers passing 
through them. Many of the descendants of the original 
Dutch inhabitants retain not only the language, but the 
manners, the customs, and the character of their plodding- 
ancestors, and are habitually shy of mingling with their 
English neighbours. But these mynheers constitute a 


486 


NEW YORK. 


small part of the population; the great majority are En¬ 
glish, Scotch, and Irish, and their descendants, and are 
generally an enlightened and hospitable people, well in¬ 
structed in the useful and elegant improvements of po¬ 
lished society, and busily engaged in the pursuits of com¬ 
merce, agriculture, and the mechanic professions. 

Seminaries of Learning. The government of 
this state has manifested great attention to the dissemina¬ 
tion of useful knowledge among its citizens. Soon after 
the close of the American war, the legislature instituted a 
literary society, under the title of Regents, with full power 
to superintend all the colleges, academies, and other 
schools through the state; to establish new seminaries, 
wherever they thought proper, and to confer literary de¬ 
grees. In the year 1795 the legislature likewise appro¬ 
priated a considerable sum of money to build school- 
houses, and to pay teachers in those parts of the country, 
where the inhabitants were too poor to make the neces¬ 
sary provisions.-The first in rank of public seminaries, 

is Columbia college in the city of New York. It was 
lounded in the year 1754, under the appellation of King’s 
College, received a royal charter, and was very liberally 
endowed by private contributions, and grants by the pro¬ 
vincial assembly.-The faculty consists of a president, 

and professors of the sciences and learned languages._- 

I he building is of stone, three stories high, with twelve 
apartments in each, a chapel, hall, library and museum. 
It is pleasantly situated on the bank of Hudson river, com- 

manding a very extensive prospect.-There is also an 

academy at flat-bush and another at East Hampton on 
Long Island; and grammar schools in the city of New 
\ork, at Albany, Kingston, Goshen, Skenectady, and some 
other places. So that although Smith “ might have 
some occasion formerly, to observe that the schools were 
in the lowest order, and the instructors wanted instruc¬ 
tion,” an ambition for literary improvement is certainly 
very prevalent and extensive at the present more en¬ 
lightened period. 

Chiep I owns. In the state of New York there 
are many flourishing towns. The three principal, which 
are incorporated and called cities, are New York, Albany, 
ana Hudson: all of them situated on the Hudson or North 
River. I he city of New York was founded by the Dutch 

ru - I ,, , , 1 ,. . „ , r _ _ n i t . 






NEW YORK. 


487 


It is happily situated for trade, at the confluence of the 
North and East rivers, extending from shore to shore, and 
containing about 60,000 inhabitants, the county included. 
1 he streets are narrow and irregular, excepting Broadway, 
VV all street, and two or three more. The private houses 
are mostly built with brick,* at least in the fronts, and co¬ 
vered with tiles: but the partition walls in many old parts 
of the city are a kind of frame work, filled in with brick, 
and of course the more liable to dreadful conflagrations. 
I his city narrowly escaped universal destruction when it 
was taken by the British in 1776. Certain incendiaries 
"lied a great number of the houses with combustible mat¬ 
ter, and set them on fire. The blaze was not extinguished 
till it had consumed a fourth part of the city; and had it 
not been for the exertion of the British army, a much 
greater part would have been laid in ashes. The principal 
buildings are the city hall, once the seat of congress, now 
appropriated to the service of the state legislature, and to 
courts of justice; the government house, the tontine coffee¬ 
house, the theatre, the jail, twenty-seven houses of.reli¬ 
gious worship, some of them large and splendid, and the 

state prison, distant about two miles from the city._The 

next in lank is Albany, which is on the North river, about 
160 miles above New York. This city is nearly as ancient 
as New York, being one of the earliest posts 'established 
by the Hollanders. It was incorporated by governor Dou- 
gan in 1686. The inhabitants in 1800 were 6200; and it 
has lately been preferred as the seat of government, on 
account of its central and safe situation. 

The inhabitants are a motley mixture of many nations, 
but principally Hollanders and their descendants, who are 
said to be deeply tinctured with the Dutch character. The 
houses are mostly built on the margin of the river, in the 
old Dutch style with the gable end to the streets. The 
water in the wells of the city is unwholesome; the inha¬ 
bitants, therefore, make use of that from the river. The 
principal public buildings are a city hah, a hospital, and 
three or four places of religious worship. The city is well 
situated for trade, being the staple of the produce of an ex¬ 
tensive and flourishing country, and will probably become 
a place of great importance. The only other remarkable 
town we shall notice is Hudson , built on the same river, 
about thirty miles below Albany, which has been distin- 


486 NEW YORK. 

guished as one of the most thriving towns in the United 
States. From the year 1784, when the first house was 
erected to the year 1800, the inhabitants had increased to 
3664. The river is nearly a mile wide opposite the town, 
and navigable for the largest merchant vessels. The ad¬ 
vantageous situation, joined to a spirit of industry and en¬ 
terprise in the inhabitants, has already rendered the town 
of Hudson a formidable rival of Albany. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The commerce 
of New York is decidedly the greatest of all the states in 
the union, but this is partly owing to a great portion of the 
import and export trade of Connecticut, Vermont, and 
New Jersey centering here: otherwise in neither respect 
would it equal Pennsylvania. Her exports, in 1802, 
amounted to 13,792,276 dollars. This was a spring tide. 
Four years before they were but 2,535,790 dollars, which 
is but a trifle more than they were four years prior to the 
American revolution. Her principal exports of native pro¬ 
duce are salt provisions, flour, flaxseed, butter, cheese, pot 
and pearl ashes.—The manufactures of the state are con¬ 
fined chiefly to articles of home consumption, such as wheel 
carriages, loaf sugar, shoes, boots, saddles, hats, clocks, 
watches, and other articles of common use.—The banks 
of discount and deposit are sufficiently numerous, though 
fewer in proportion to her trade than those of some of the 
towns in New England. There are four at New York, 
and six insurance offices; one bank at Albany, and another 
at Troy. 

Climate and Seasons. The northern part of 
this state that lies along lake Champlain resembles Ver¬ 
mont in its climate and seasons, having long and cold win¬ 
ters; this part is but thinly settled. A very considerable 
portion that lies on the west of the Alleghany mountains, 
and between them and the lakes is exceedingly temperate, 
and comprehends a rich country that is filling daily with 
an industrious yeomanry. The old settled parts that bor¬ 
der on the Hudson, the East river, and the Sound, are 
middling healthful, but subject to frequent and sudden 
changes of atmosphere. Although the rivers are very 
seldom frozen over opposite the city of New York, owing 
to the vicinity of the ocean, they are frequently filled with 
large bodies of floating ice sufficient to interrupt naviga¬ 
tion. 


NEW YORK. 


489 


Soil and Agriculture. In a state extended 
through five degrees of latitude, with an extensive sea¬ 
shore, and intersected with lakes and mountains, the soil 
and cultivation must be diversified; a part is light and 
sandy, but the greatest part is land proper for grass or 
grain: the western counties contain a strong and rich soil, 
and produce luxuriant crops of the staple article of wheat. 
The intervales among the high lands bordering on the 
Hudson river contain many excellent dairies and grazing 
farms. Although a considerable part of Long Island is a 
sterile sand, it has been rendered very productive by the 
plodding industry of its inhabitants. 

Rivers, Bays, Lakes, and Islands. The streams 
of New York are numerous and most of them navigable: 
besides the Hudson or North river which rises in the moun¬ 
tains of Canada, and after running a course of 250 miles 
through the whole length of the state, discharges itself 
into the York bay; there is another considerable river cal¬ 
led the Mohawk river, which springs in the N. W. part 
of the state, and after a course of 110 miles, through a 
fertile country, pours its tributary water into the Hudson 
a few miles above Albany. Besides these there are Back 
River, Oswego, and Gennessee rivers, that pursue an op¬ 
posite course and unite with lake Ontario.—The principal 
bays are York bay, which spreads up to the city of New- 
York, is formed by the waters of the East and North ri¬ 
vers, and passes into the ocean at a strait called the Nar¬ 
rows, South bay is at the head of lake Champlain, uniting 
with lake George, at or near Ticonderago.——There are 
five or six lakes within the territories of New York, but 
none of them large; the most extended is lake Oneida, 
about 25 miles in length; but perhaps the most beneficial 
is Salt lake, near the western confines of the state, which 
furnishes all the circumjacent country with this indispen¬ 
sable article.-The only islands under the jurisdiction 

of this state, that are worthy of notice, are York Island, 

Long Island, and Staten Island.-The first of these is 

joined to the main land by Kings Bridge, and on the point 
of it is built the city of New York. The island is about 
fifteen miles long and hardly a mile wide, but the whole 
of it is in the highest state of cultivation. Long Island is 
separated from the continent by the Sound and the East 
river, extending in length from Montock (its most east- 




490 


NEW YORK. 


crn) point to the Narrows, about 140 miles, with a me¬ 
dial breadth of 10 miles. It contains three counties and 
several handsome villages. The whole is in an advanced 
state of improvement, and contains about 40,000 inhabit¬ 
ants. On this island is an extensive plain, called Hamp¬ 
stead, which is 15 miles long by seven or eight wide, and 
is appropriated as common for horses, sheep, and cattle. 
It is also famous for being the scene of the first field battle 
fought between the American army under general Wash¬ 
ington, and the British army under general Sir W. Howe. 
Here the illustrious American first learnt the danger of 
opposing his undisciplined troops to the veteran bands of 
Great Britain, as well as the facility of escaping from his 
enemy when he was beaten. Here he also discovered, 
that his antagonist, though able to conquer, was too indo¬ 
lent, or otherwise indisposed to improve his victory: other¬ 
wise it is not improbable that this first engagement in the 

field would have been the last between the two armies.- 

Staten Island, which lies to the south-west of New-York, 
close on the shore of New Jersey, is comparatively small, 
being only 18 miles long, and about 7 miles broad, con¬ 
taining about 4,500 inhabitants, who are principally de¬ 
scended from Dutch and French ancestors. 

Mountains. Along the banks of the North river, 
as high up as the town of Hudson, the land is broken with 
numerous hills and mountains, particularly a romantic 
tract of 16 miles called the High-lands, though none of 
them very elevated. But beyond the Alleghany moun¬ 
tains, a part of which passes through the state nearly north 
and south, the country exhibits a rich and extended level 
of excellent land. The highest ridge in the state is called 
Katts Kill, a name derived from the ancient Dutch colo¬ 
nists, and lies principally in Green county. 

Vegetable, Animal, and Mineral Productions. 
The indigenous vegetables and animals of this state differ 
but little from those of New England. The staple produce 
of the improved land is wheat, which is cultivated with 
great success, particularly in the new counties; of this ar¬ 
ticle near a million of bushels have been exported in one 
year, besides the shipments of bread and flour. The crops 
also of barley, rye, peas, oats and Indian corn, not only 
supply the home consumption, but large quantities of 
most of them for exportation. Besides all the common 



NEW JERSEY. 


491 


domestic animals, the northern parts of New York which 
remain in their natural state are still tenanted by their abo- 
riginal quadrupeds: bears, foxes, martins, several species 
of deer, and a few beavers, still afford employment for the 
haidy sons of Nimrod. Nor is this state deficient in mi¬ 
neral riches, though iron is the principal ore, as indeed it 
is the most useful, that has hitherto been manufactured. 
1 he mineral waters of Saratoga are well known through¬ 
out the union for their many medicinal qualities, and the 
resort of numerous visitors, for health or for pleasure. 


NEW JERSEY. 


Extent and Situation. NEW JERSEY is 
bounded on the east by the Atlantic ocean, which washes 
its eastern shore from 39° to 40° 30' of N. latitude; on the 
north by the bay and state of New York; on the west by 
the river Delaware; and on the south by Delaware bay and 
the ocean. It contains about 8300 square miles, or little 
more than 5,000,000 of acres, and is situated between 39° 
and 41° C J4' N. latitude, and between the meridian of 
Philadelphia and 1° E. longitude, or between 75° and 76° 
W. from London. 

Original Population. The Indigenal tribes 
that roamed the woods and fished in the waters of New 
Jersey were probably once very numerous; being invited 
thither by the convenience of fishing in its rivers and its 
various inlets from the sea. The most noted were the 
Mantaws, or Prog Indians who planted their wigwams 
about the place now called Burlington, the Narriticongs 
seated on the river Rariton, the Capibingasses, the Ga- 
eheos, Delawares, Pomptons and Munseys. These clans 
are all extinct, or have removed and are blended with 
distant Indian nations. The first European settlers were 
the Dutch, who included the Jerseys within the limits of 
what they called New Netherlands, in or about the year 
1614. 




492 


NEW JERSEY. 


Memorable Events. 1623. The Dutch built a 
fort near Gloucester, on the river Delaware, calling it 
South river: and they taught the Indians the use of fire 
arms, that they might assist them in expelling the English. 

1627. The Swedes sailed up the Delaware, and pur¬ 
chased of the natives all the land on both sides of the river, 
from the Capes to the falls: calling the river New-Swede- 
land stream. 

1630. The Dutch built a fort at Lewis-town, then call¬ 
ed Hoer-kill. 

1631. The Swedes built a fort at the mouth of Chris- 
tianna creek, near Wilmington, and others at Tinicum 
Island, Chester in Pennsylvania, and at Elsinburgh near 
Salem in New Jersey. 

1654. John Risingh the Swedish governor took fort 
Casimir, now New Castle, from the Dutch, alledging that 
it was built on the Swedish territory. 

1655. The Dutch came with a considerable force (of 
six or seven vessels) and compelled the Swedes to deliver 
up all their forts on both sides of the Delaware: and the 
country remained under the dominion of the Hollanders 
till, 

1664. When King Charles granted to his brother James 
Duke of York an extensive tract of land in North Ame¬ 
rica which included all the Dutch plantations; and in the 
same year sent a strong force to take possession. 

1664. New Netherlands divided into two parts, viz. 
New York and New Jersey; the latter being conveyed 
by the Duke of York to Lord Berkley and Sir Geo. Car¬ 
teret. 

1674. The title to soil and government confirmed to 
the English by the treaty of Westminster. 

1676. The province divided into Last and West Jer¬ 
sey: Lord Berkley sold West Jersey to the Friends. 

1702. The proprietors surrender the government of 
the province to the crown, it having been under a pro¬ 
prietary government to this time from the year 1674. 

Five delegates appointed to meet the general Congress 
at Philadelphia July 23, 1774. 

State Constitution framed July 2, 1776. 

Federal Constitution ratified Dec. 19, 1687. N. C. 

Religion. All religions are tolerated, but none 
are admitted to offices except Protestants. The most nu- 


NEW JERSEY. 


493 


merous sects are the Friends and Presbyterians: the for¬ 
mer in West, and the latter in East Jersey. But the Epis¬ 
copalians, Methodists, and Baptists, compose many very 
respectable congregations. All partake equally in the ci¬ 
vil rights and immunities of the state ; to elect, or be 
elected, if they possess the legal qualifications. 

Governmen r /nd Laws. The legislature of this 
state consists of two branches; viz, a legislative Council, 
composed of 13 members, and an Assembly of 39 mem¬ 
bers; both chosen annually by the people_A member of 

the council must possess an estate worth 1000/. and a mem¬ 
ber ol assembly, 500/. currency. A residence of one year 
in the county, where elected, is a qualification necessary 
in both.— 1 ne assembly has the sole right of originating 
money bills; in all other respects the powers of the two 

branches are equi-pollent.-The executive authority is 

vested in a governor, who is elected annually by a joint vote 
of council and assembly. His qualifications are not defined 
by the constitution. He is always president of the legis¬ 
lative council, and has a casting vote in that body. He acts 
as chancellor and ordinary, and with the assistance of seven 
members ot the legislative council, he may hold a court of 
appeals in civil cases, in which court he presides. His 
power of pardoning criminals extends to all offences; but he. 
commonly acts with the advice of his privy council, which 
consists oi three members selected from the legislative coun¬ 
cil*— ihe council and assembly appoint all the judges, ex¬ 
cept those ot the high court of errors and appeals already 
mentioned.—The judgesof the supreme court are appointed 
for seven years, those of inferior judges for five years; but 
they are all removable by impeachment before the legisla¬ 
tive council.—Justices courts are held frequently for trial 
of causes under 12/—Courts of common pleas and quarter 
sessions are held quarterly in every county; and a supreme 
court, whose authority extends over the state, is held four 
times in the year.—All free men and free women , who are 
ol full age, worth 50/. and have resided in the state one 
year before the election, are entitled to the right of suffrage. 
This privilege, if exercised by the ladies with all their fas¬ 
cinating arts, might produce some evil consequences to the 
state; but if it excite only one angry passion in the mind 
or imprint one premature wrinkle on the face of a fair 
daughter of New Jersey, these are evils sufficient to con¬ 
i' t 


494 


NEW JERSEY. 


sign it to everlasting disuse.—The common and statute 
laws of England are adopted, except when they interfere 
with the constitution, or some special law of the state.— 
The delegation to Congress consists of two Senators and 
six Representatives. The former are appointed by a joint 
vote of the two houses, sometimes by ballot, at others, 
viva voce; and the latter are elected by a plurality of the 
people. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. The state 
is divided into thirteen counties, seven of which lie on the 
west side along the river Delaware, four on the east,, and 
two that are called inland. These are subdivided into 94 
townships, containing 2,032,587 acres of improved land, 
i he population in 1800 was 211,149 persons (of whom 
12,422 were slaves,) being about 25i to a square mile, of 
the superficies of the state. The increase in ten years, 
just preceding 1800, was 27,000, which is very trifling 
when compared with the growth of the colony, prior to 
the revolution. White males 98,725, females 95,600. 
Under 16 years 97,288; above 16 years 97,037. Of 45 
years and upwards 11,600. The militia of the state is 
about 20,000 men. This corps acquired much praise for 
their activity during some part of the American war. 

Revenues and Expenses. The revenues of the 
state arise from an equal tax on all real and personal pro¬ 
perty, which amounts to about 150,000 dollars per annum; 
but the greatest part of this sum is applied to discharge 
the interest of the debts contracted during the war. The 
ordinary expenses of the government are about 27,000 dol¬ 
lars per annum, which is equal to the eighth of a dollar 
per head in a capitation tax. 

Manners, Customs and Language. The lan¬ 
guage is English, the present inhabitants being principally 
descended from English progenitors; but it is a little cor¬ 
rupted in the northern part of the state by a Dutch accent 
and idioms, owing partly to this part being first settled by 
Hollanders, and partly to a frequent intercourse with New 
York. But on the whole the language is perhaps as pure 
as that of any other state. The same may be said with 
respect to manners and customs. The shades that origin¬ 
ally distinguished the first settlers are still to be traced by 
nice observation in some of their descendants.—Having no 


NEW JERSEY 


495 


sea port town the great bulk of the inhabitants are farmers, 
and they are generally an industrious, shrewd, neat, and 
hospitable people. 

Seminaries of Learning. The inhabitants of 
New Jersey have never been distinguished for their zeal in 
the cause of literature. They have but few seminaries en¬ 
titled to a particular notice. The college at Princeton, 
called Nassau Hall, which was founded in the year 1738, 
has an income of about 2400 dollars per annum, and gra¬ 
duates about 40 students at its annual commencement; 
Queen’s College at Brunswick, of secondary rank, was 
founded and incorporated some time before the American 
war. Both these institutions are in a flourishing state. 
They have also three or four academies, and perhaps as 
many grammar schools, established in the other principal 
towns. The college at Princeton has been unfortunate: 
it was plundered in the American war by the marauders 
of the British army, and it was more recently burnt to the 
ground, as was suspected, by one of its own pupils. 

Chief Towns. The principal town and the seat 
of government is Trenton, situated on the east bank of 
the river Delaware, about 30 miles above Philadelphia, at 
the head of the tide. The inhabitants are about two thou¬ 
sand, and the dwelling houses about two hundred. The 
only public building that deserves notice is a court house 
about 100 feet front, by 50 feet deep. This town is dis¬ 
tinguished by being the scene of two of General Wash¬ 
ington’s most important and brilliant actions, during the 
revolutionary war. In the first he captured a British post, 
held by a detachment of 900 Hessian troops, and made the 
whole of them prisoners, on the 26th of Dec. 1776. Till 
this day he had been obliged to fly before a conquering 
enemy; the Americans were disheartened; and his whole 
army was reduced to about 2000 men. The second oc¬ 
curred about four days afterwards, when he escaped from 
a superior army of the enemy, by a bold and masterly 
manoeuvre in the night. Had he remained in his situation 
till the morning, his whole army and himself would have 
been either slain, or made prisoners.—The next in rank is 
Brunswick, distant about 35 miles from New York, near 
the river Rariton, over which is constructed one of the 
handsomest wooden bridges in the United States. It 
contains about 2000 inhabitants, a moiety of whom are 


496 


NEW JERSEY. 


descended from Dutch families.-Burlington on fhe Del¬ 

aware, is 20 miles above Philadelphia, and was for many 
years the seat of government. This is a very ancient 
town, being founded in the year 1677, and was then called 
New Beverly; but has increased slowly, its present popu¬ 
lation not exceeding 15‘or 16 hundred souls.-Amboy, 

designed by nature for a sea port, has an excellent har¬ 
bour that lies open to Sandy Hook, and may be approach¬ 
ed with any wind. Some feeble efforts have been made 
to introduce commerce into this capital of East Jersey, but 
have always failed. At the end of the American war, a 
large body of loyalists applied to the state for permission 
to settle in Amboy, but their petition was rejected. Most 
of them were commercial men, of great enterprize and 
capital, and, had their prayer been granted, would have 
enriched the city, and soon made it the emporium of an 
extensive foreign trade. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The manufac¬ 
tures of this state are not very considerable. An attempt 
was made by a company, incorporated in 1791, to establish 
a large factory of cotton and linen goods at Patterson, and 
a large capital was subscribed for the purpose, but it soon 
ended in loss and disappointment. The farmers make 
coarse linen and woollen cloths, for the consumption of 
their families, and there are some tanneries and paper 
mills, but the principal manufacture is that of bar and pig 
iron, hollow ware, and other castings. Some parts of the 
state abound with excellent ore, and plenty of timber. 
Morris county alone contains between 30 and 40 forges, 
furnaces, rolling and slitting mills. The wares are spread 
over the country for the use of the inhabitants, and con¬ 
veyed to New York and Philadelphia for sale. The export 
and import trade of this state passes principally through 
the channels of those two grand staples: there the Jersey 
farmer finds a ready market and good price for all the pro¬ 
duce he has to spare, as well as an easy supply of all he 
wants.-The numerous stages running between Phila¬ 

delphia and New York, which pass so great a part of their 
routes through this state, must introduce a great deal of 
money, as the accommodations at the inns are extrava¬ 
gantly dear, and American travellers are not the greatest 
economists. The consumption of foreign spirituous liquors 





NEW JERSEY. 


497 


alone, in the year 1786, was valued at 170,000 dollars, and 
since that time it has been nearly doubled. 

Climate and Seasons. The northern counties 
of this state, as Hunterdon, Sussex, Morris and Bergen, 
are a high mountainous country, and experience severe 
cold in winter, but the southern counties, particularly those 
which extend along the sea and the bay of Delaware, being 
less exposed to the bleak northern winds in winter, and be¬ 
ing fanned in summer by temperate breezes from the bay 
and the ocean, approach nearer to an equal temperature 
throughout the year. The inhabitants of the flat lands 
near these waters, are subject to stubborn fall fevers, and 
are infested with innumerable swarms of French flies 
(commonly called musquetoes) who always cousin people 
before they draw their blood. 

Soil and Agriculture. One-fourth of this state 
consists of a barren sand, salt marshes on the sea shore, 
and cedar swamps. These extend in a strip of near twenty 
miles wide from the Atlantic ocean, and are of inconsider¬ 
able value. The other parts are productive of every spe¬ 
cies of useful grain, fruits and roots; and are celebrated 
for their melons, their apple and peach orchards, their ex¬ 
cellent cyder, superior to French wines, their peach spirits, 
their cheese, their pork, and their hams equal to those-of 
Westphalia. 

Mountains, Rivers, Bays and Islands. The 
southern half of this state is a level country, and by the 
appearance of the soil, seems to have been thrown up by 
the ocean. Oyster shells have been discovered thirty or 
forty feet below the surface: the northern parts are moun¬ 
tainous. The high lands of Navesink, which lie on the 
sea coast in Monmouth county, are reckoned 500 feet 
above the level of the neighbouring ocean, and are an ex¬ 
cellent land mark to the mariner as he approaches the coast. 
Sussex, Morris, and Bergen are intersected by numerous 
lofty ridges, which form a part of the Alleghany moun¬ 
tains, and extend across the state from Delaware to Hud¬ 
son, furnishing the head springs of the Rariton, the Pas¬ 
saic, the Hackensack, the Musconecunk, and many other 
smaller streams, which pour their tributary waters into the 
Delaware and the Hudson. These rivers are small and na¬ 
vigable only by small craft from ten to fifteen miles from 

t t 2 


498 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


their outlets. The principal rivers of the Jersey state are 
the Cohansey and Morris rivers, in Gloucester county, 
which empty into Delaware bay, and are navigable by ves¬ 
sels of 100 tons, 15 or 20 miles. The bays are Egg-har¬ 
bour and Barnegat bays, formed by beaches on the sea 
shore, and the Rariton and Newark bays, which are more 
properly the estuaries of the rivers Rariton and Passaic. 

Mines. Nature has been bountiful to this state in 
the distribution of her mineral treasures. The whole range 
of mountains above mentioned abounds with mines. Be¬ 
sides those of iron already noticed, it would be inexcusable 
not to mention Schuyler’s silver mine, which has been 
worked with considerable advantage; the copper mine on 
Second river, in Bergen county, that has yielded even 80 
pounds of pure copper in the hundred; Young’s and Og¬ 
den’s mines in Sussex; and Tennyke’s, Ritschall’s and Van 
Horne’s in Somerset county. All these veins have nearly 
the same direction along the surface, from N. E. to S. W. 
and they all sink in the same manner, falling nearly in an 
obtuse angle towards the east. But most of them have 
been unproductive hitherto, owing to the high price"of la¬ 
bour, in every part of the United States. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


Extent and Situation. PENNSYLVANIA is 
situated between 39° 43' and 42° N. latitude, and 0 20' E. 
and 5° W. longitude from Philadelphia, or between 75° 
and 80° W. from London: it is bounded on the north by 
lake Erie and the State of New York; on the east by the 
river Delaware; on the south by the State of Delaware, 
and apart of Maryland and Virginia; and on the west by 
the State of Ohio, and a part of Virginia. It contains about 
46,000 square miles, or about 29,000,000 of acres. 

Original Population. Before the arrival of Eu¬ 
ropeans, Pennsylvania was the favourite hunting ground 




PENNSYLVANIA. 


499 


of the Delawares, Shawanese, Susquehannocs, Neshame- 
nies, Shackamacksons, Minqnas or Conestogoes, Mini- 
sinks, Nanticokes, and many other barbarous tribes; all of 
whom were subject to the Iroquois or Five Nations, who 
exercised a fierce dominion over all their brother savages, 
from lake Champlain to the borders of Carolina. At pre¬ 
sent there is hardly a cabbin existing within the limits of 
the state of Pennsylvania, that belongs to any of these an¬ 
cient lords of the soil. 

Memorable Events. 1623. It appears that the 
Dutch sailed up the Delaware river, to which they gave 
the name of South River , as early as the year 1623. 

1627. The Swedes arrived, and landing at Cape-Inlopen, 
purchased of the natives the lands on both sides of the river 
from its mouth to the falls, calling the country New Swe¬ 
den. 

1631. They erected forts near Wilmington, Chester, 
and on Tinicum island. 

1654. The Dutch built Fort Cassimir (now New Cas¬ 
tle) and expelled the Swedes from this settlement. Receiv¬ 
ing a reinforcement of six or seven vessels, the year follow¬ 
ing, they reduced all the other Swedish forts. 

1664. The Dutch were in their turn obliged to submit 
to the superior force of the English, under the conduct of 
sir R. Carr. The country granted by king Charles II. to 
his brother the duke of York, and annexed by the latter to 
the government of New York which had likewise submit¬ 
ted to the British arms. 

1681. William Penn obtained a charter for Pennsylva¬ 
nia, from king Charles II. Three ships freighted with emi¬ 
grants, arrived this year in the Delaware, and were re¬ 
ceived by the natives with unaffected hospitality—by reci¬ 
procal justice and benevolence, a foundation was laid of 
peace and friendship, which lasted for seventy years, with¬ 
out the aid of guns or pallisadoe forts. 

1682. William Penn receives a release from the duke of 
York of his claim to the province, as well as the territories 
(now the state of Delaware). Arrives at New Castle, pub¬ 
lishes his first frame of government, and meets the first 
provincial assembly at Upland, now Chester. Philadelphia 
founded and made the seat of government. 

1684. Tie returns to England, and leaves the executive 
authority with a president and provincial council. 


5-00 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


1691. The territories, or lower counties, secede from the 
provincial government, and obtain a separate governor. 

1693. William Penn is deprived of the government of 
Pennsylvania, and it is annexed to that of New York, un¬ 
der governor Fletcher. In the following year it is restored 
to the proprietor. 

1699. William Penn arrives in the colony a second time. 
The yellow fever, introduced by a vessel from the West 
Indies, rages with great mortality in Philadelphia. 

1701. The assembly refuse to grant, a small sum re¬ 
quired by the crown, to build forts on the frontier of New 
York. This year Wulliam Penn returns to England; be¬ 
fore he embarked he granted a charter to Philadelphia, 
and the fourth or last frame of government for the province: 
both these existed till the American revolution. The pro¬ 
vince and territories agree to separate and constitute two 
distinct legislatures, with one executive. 

1712. The proprietor disposes of the government of the 
province to queen Ann for 12,000/. sterling, but being seized 
by an apoplexy is prevented from executing a conveyance. 

1716. Governor Gookin refuses to qualify Quakers, to 
fill the office of justices of the peace.—Is succeeded in 1717 
by sir William Keith, who was one of the most popular 
governors that ever filled the executive chair in Pennsyl¬ 
vania. 

1718. William Penn died at Ruscomb, in Buckingham¬ 
shire, (O. E.) 

1723. The first establishment of a general loan-office, 
and the emission of 45,000/. in paper currency, for that 
purpose. This emission was followed by many others, to 
the general benefit of the colony, without any sensible de¬ 
preciation. 

1726. The popular Keith is removed, and succeeded by 
Patrick Gordon, esq. This year the use of an affirmation 
(instead of an oath) which had been interrupted, is con¬ 
firmed by law, and receives the royal sanction. 

1786. Governor Gordon dies, and is succeeded by George 
Thomas, esq. This year Benjamin Franklin made his first 
appearance on the political stage, and is appointed clerk of 
the general assembly. 

1742. A mob of sailors, in the pay of a party, armed 
with clubs, &c. attacked and beat the freemen of Philadel¬ 
phia, at their general election, but are easily quelled. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


501 


1754. This year Indian hostilities were first known in 
Pennsylvania. The intrigues of the French, the incroach- 
ments of the frontier inhabitants, and the loose conduct of 
Indian traders, at length prevailed to alienate the minds of 
the natives from their ancient friends and allies. The ex¬ 
penses of supporting so long a peace with them had cost 
the province 1~00/. per annum for several years preceding. 

1755. Governor R. Hunter Morris published a procla¬ 
mation of war against the Indians, and offered a price for 
Indian scalps, contrary to the opinion and advice of the 
legislature. Hitherto the Friends composed a great ma¬ 
jority of the assembly, but being dissatisfied with the war, 
and the general conduct of their governor, most of them 
declined all public offices from about this time. 

1763. Massacre of the Conestogoe Indians, living under 
the faith of government, by the white inhabitants of Pex- 
tang; a settlement on the frontiers of Pennsylvania, com¬ 
posed principally of emigrants from Ireland, and their im¬ 
mediate descendants. And it is as memorable that these 
murderers escaped unpunished, under the administration 
of John Penn, a grandson of the first proprietor, while the 
name of Penn was still venerated by the Indians for hu¬ 
manity and justice. 

1764. Petitions to the king from the assembly and sun¬ 
dry inhabitants, praying him to release them from propri¬ 
etary jurisdiction, and to establish a royal government. It 
is equally singular, that this petition should be advocated 
by the Quakers, as that it should be opposed by the Pres¬ 
byterians. 

1774. Seven delegates appointed by the general assem¬ 
bly to meet the general congress at Philadelphia, July 22, 
1774. 

1779. Act of the assembly to vest the estate of the Penn 
family in the commonwealth of Pennsylvania. For assist¬ 
ance rendered the attorney-general by a certain well known 
man of law, in defence of this act, the assembly voted him 
one hundred pounds. 

1787. Federal constitution ratified, December 13, by a 
majority of 46 to 23. 

1790. State constitution revised and amended, Sept. 2. 

Religion. That political equality among religious 
sects, which is now enjoyed in most of the American states, 
was once the peculiar privilege of Pennsylvania; emanat- 


502 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


ing from the generous mind of its founder, and established 
as the first of its charter rights. This equality is now ex¬ 
tended to all who believe in the existence of One God. 
The most numerous sects in the state at this period, are 
the English and German Calvinists, of various denomina¬ 
tions, the Quakers, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Baptists, Ro¬ 
man Catholics, and Methodists. There are several other 
religious societies, but not quite so considerable: as the 
Menonists,Swenkfelders, Moravians, and Dunkards,among 
the Germans; and among the English, the Seceders, Uni¬ 
tarians, Universalists, and Deists; for the last also lorm a 
religious community, and are suffered to hold their im¬ 
pious assemblies, and publicly to blaspheme that sacred 
name which all the others profess to worship with prayer 
and praise. 

Government and Laws. The legislative autho¬ 
rity of this state, is divided into two branches, a senate and 
house of representatives. Both are elected by the people: 
the former for four years, with an annual rotation of one 
fourth, and the latter annually.—The number of represen¬ 
tatives cannot exceed 100, nor that of senators 34.—But 
being chosen in the same manner, by the same electors, 
and with nearly the same qualifications, the idea of a check 

or balance is imaginary.-No pecuniary or landed estate 

is required in either: the senator must be 25 years of age, 
and have had a residence of four years; the representa¬ 
tive full age, and a residence of three years, before his elec¬ 
tion.-The representatives propose all bills for raising a 

revenue, and possess the powder of impeaching; the senate 
try impeachments, and two thirds convict- In all other re¬ 
spects their powers are equal.-—The Governor, who is 
the chief executive magistrate, is elected triennially by the 
same mass of free citizens as choose the legislature, and 
is re-eligible for 9 years out of 12. His salary is fixed by 
law, and cannot be changed during the term of his admi¬ 
nistration. No religion or any other qualification is required, 
but the age of 30 years, and a residence in the state seven 
years prior to his election. He has a power of suspending 
the enactment of laws for one session; he may grant re¬ 
prieves and pardons, except in cases of impeachment; re¬ 
mit fines and forfeitures; and possesses a very extensive 
patronage in the gift of offices; too large for any but a 
very virtuous man, and extremely dangerous in the hands 
of one who is a slave to passion and party rage.-The 




PENNSYLVANIA. 


503 


right of suffrage is extended to all white males of full age, 
who have resided in the state two years, and paid taxes; 
and to secure these citizens from interruption, in the im¬ 
portant business of voting, they are free from arrest for 
debt whilst attending elections. 

The Judges of the supreme and county courts receive 
stated salaries, and are declared by the constitution to hold 
their commissions during good behaviour; but either very 
little wisdom has been exercised in their appointment, or 
the constitution is too weak to shield them against the per¬ 
secution of a party ; for in no other country was there ever 
exhibited so many instances of impeachments and remov¬ 
als from office, in as few years. The courts of justice are 
as follows, viz. a supreme court, whose jurisdiction is co¬ 
extensive with the state, comprizing a chief judge and four 
associates; courts of oyer and terminer and nisi prius (a 
branch of the supreme) which are held in the several coun¬ 
ties as the judges appoint; and courts of quarter sessions 
and common pleas held quarterly in every district. There 
are besides, an orphans ccurt in every county, and a high 
court of errors and appeals convened twice a year at the 
metropolis. All judicial proceedings are regulated by the 
common and statute laws of England, except when they 
contravene the constitution or some particular law' of the 
commonwealth.—The state sends two senators and 18 re¬ 
presentatives to the general Congress. Senators are ap¬ 
pointed viva voce , by a joint vote of assembly: Represen¬ 
tatives by the people in districts. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. Penn¬ 
sylvania is divided into thirty-five counties, nineteen and 
part of the twentieth lying on the western side of Susque¬ 
hanna; and these are subdivided into a number of town¬ 
ships of various dimensions. Two thirds of those counties 
have been formed since the revolution; not because the in¬ 
habitants have increased in that proportion, but in order to 
multiply offices, and to bring courts and court houses nearer 
to their doors, a spirit of wrangling having grown faster 
than the population. Notwithstanding the many physical 
and political advantages this state has long possessed, and 
the extraordinary influx of foreigners, the last twenty years, 
the inhabitants have not increased as rapidly as they did 
before the revolution. According to the general censuses 
of 1790 and 1800, at the first period there were 434,373 



504 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


persons, and at the last 602,545 (or about 13 to a square 
mile) which affords a duplication in 26 years: but by the 
journals of assembly and the provincial assessments, the 
taxables that in 1731 did not exceed 10 000, in 1751 were 
about 21,000, and in 1771, notwithstanding an intervening 
war of seven years, had risen to between 39 and 40,000. 
The militia of the state is about 87,000 men. 

1 1 k venues and Expenses. According to public 
accounts exhibited to the assembly in 1802, the various 
expenses of the year were 397,863 dollars, (about 67 cents 
per head) of which the receipts fell short by 18,747 dollars. 
These are exclusive of poor taxes, and all other county 
and city rates, which constitute an additional expense, and, 
in the city, are above five dollars per head on all the free 
white inhabitants.— 1 he revenues of the state arise from 
marriage and tavern licences, duties on public auctions, 
militia lines, the sale of vacant lands, and the interest of 
public money in the stocks, ike—The revenues might have 
been accumulated to a prodigious amount, had the landed 
estate k not less than ten millions of acres) together with a 
vast sum of arrearages, quit-rents, city lots, &c. worth at 
least 20 millions of dollars, which the government obliged 
the Penn family to sell for 130,000/. been managed* with 
common prudence; but the whole, or very near the whole, 
as well as the proceeds of all the confiscated estates, are 
consumed; and no turnpike roads, canals, or aqueducts, 
hospitals, churches, or state houses, to atone for the enor¬ 
mous spoliation. Almost every public work, since the re¬ 
volution, has been executed either by private subscriptions, 
or the gambling profits of lotteries, and the government 
has been obliged sometimes to anticipate its revenues to 
meet the contingent expenses of the year. Should the fis¬ 
cal concerns of the state be managed with no better econo¬ 
my, the government will in a few years be obliged to recur 
to a direct tax to support itself. 

Manners, Customs and Language. The lan¬ 
guage generally used in this as in the other American 
states is English, and in the old counties it is spoken with 
considerable purity; but in the new, which are peopled 
mostly by Irish or Germans, or their descendants, the lan¬ 
guage is very corrupt. Among the Irish it is pronounced 
with the peculiar brogue of the nation, and in some of the 
German settlements, the people speak a mongrel dialect 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


505 


they have acquired in this country, the basis of which is 
German. Both these classes retain many of their national 
peculiarities. Among the Irish farmers, a whiskey dram 
is a general favourite, which the master of the bouse hands 
cheerfully to every visitor; but his farm is badly managed, 
his cattle poor, and his barn and fences in wretched con¬ 
dition. The house of a Dutch farmer is commodious, but 
seldom elegant—his farm is generally in good order, and 
all his cattle sleek and thriving.—If there is any general 
trait in the character of the citizens of Pennsylvania, more 
prominent than others, it is a zeal for the total abolition 
of slavery, and the indiscriminate naturalization of aliens. 
From this source the state is inundated by a flood of blacks 
from the islands and the southern states, and fugitives from 
Europe, whose frequent crimes have contributed much to 
swell the dockets of all our criminal courts. 

Seminaries of Learning. Notwithstanding the 
liberality of individuals, and a small patronage from go¬ 
vernment, the benefits of education are not generally dif¬ 
fused through this state; owing, in a great measure, to a 
custom among farmers, who constitute a numerous class 
of the community, of keeping their children at home during 
the labouring months, and sending them to school only in 
the winter; from which cause they grow up, learning and 
forgetting, till they arrive at an age too stubborn to submit 
to discipline, and too proud to be taught. The case is dif¬ 
ferent in the city, the large towns and the villages; there 
all branches of a liberal education are cultivated with con¬ 
siderable ardour and improvement. 

As early as 1689, a public school was established and 
endowed by Friends, in the city of Philadelphia; where 
the learned languages, and all the useful branches of the 
mathematics, as well as the elements of an English educa¬ 
tion, have been taught for more than a century. In the 
city there is at this time one university, including a medi¬ 
cal school, erected during the war, on the foundation, and 
on the funds, of Philadelphia college, a seminary flourish¬ 
ing in honourable fame twenty years before. This insti¬ 
tution, besides the patronage of government, has received 
large aids from private munificence; it has professors in 
all the branches of science and medicine; public examina¬ 
tions are held, and literary degrees are conferred regularly 

u u 


506 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


once a year.—-While the college was under the direction 
of its ancient trustees, and Dr. Win. Smith, its first pro¬ 
vost and most zealous patron, it flourished beyond any 
other institution of the kind, in British America; and it still 
holds a respectable rank among the public seminaries in 
the United States. 

Institutions of an inferior order, particularly female aca¬ 
demies, are very numerous. The colleges at Carlisle, Lan¬ 
caster, and York-town, academies in several small villages, 
and a large boarding school about 20 miles from the city, 
erected by Friends, and capable of accommodating 200 
children, bear honourable testimony to the enlightened and 
liberal spirit of Pennsylvania. 

Chief Towns. The metropolis of Pennsylvania 
and the largest city in the United States is Philadelphia; 
situated about four miles above the confluence of Delaware 
and Schuylkill, in the latitude of 39° 57' N. and long, of 
75° S' W. from London. This city was founded by Wil¬ 
liam Penn in the year 1682, and in little more than a cen¬ 
tury has grown from a few caves on the western bank of 
the Delaware to a large city, containing 12,000 houses, 

mostly built with bricks, and 70,000 inhabitants.-The 

harbour, wharves, warehouses, and public markets, parti¬ 
cularly the latter, are not equalled by those of any other 
city in the United States; and were it not for some ob¬ 
struction in the navigation, about two months of winter, its 
central situation, the industry, productions, and population 
of the state, would render it without a competitor the great¬ 
est emporium of the western world.-There are four 

incorporated banks in the city, viz. the bank of North Ame¬ 
rica, those of the United States, of Pennsylvania, and Phila¬ 
delphia, whose united capitals may amount to 15,000,000 
of dollars.-The principal buildings are 28 houses of re¬ 

ligious worship, some of them very large and handsome; 
a state house erected in the year 1735, and 2 court houses, 
one at the end of each wing of the state house: south of 
the state house is the public gaol, a stone building, one 
hundred feet front, which is perhaps the most elegant and 
secure edifice of the kind in the Union; the city library; 
philosophical hall and dispensary; the Pennsylvania hos¬ 
pital; an alms house and house of employment; engine 
houses for raising water from the river Schuylkill to sup- 





PENNSYLVANIA. 


507 


ply the city with a wholesome fluid; the banks of the 
United States and Pennsylvania, two superb buildings, the 
former with a front of white marble, and the latter faced 
wholly with the same material-The humane and lite¬ 

rary foundations in Philadelphia are numerous, and reflect 
considerable honour on the enlightened and liberal minds 

of its inhabitants.-The great abundance of provisions, 

that is exposed twice a week in Philadelphia market, has 
long been the admiration of strangers; but the benefits of 
this abundance are much lessened to the inhabitants by 
numerous vermin, called hucksters , who foreslal every ar¬ 
ticle brought to market, except butchers' meat, and retail 
it on the same day to consumers, with an advance at least 
of 25 per centum. This enormous mischief, which costs 
the city at least half a million of dollars per annum, is of 
recent date; and the corporation possesses no power at 
present to restrain it, the authority of regulating the mu¬ 
nicipal concerns of the city, which was formerly vested 
wholly in that body, having been abridged by the interfer¬ 
ence of the state legislature. 

The next place worthy of notice is Lancaster , situated 
about (30 miles to the westward of Philadelphia. This is 
the present seat of the state government, and contains 
about 5000 inhabitants. York, Reading, Carlisle, Pitts¬ 
burgh and Harrisburgh, are all county towns, of consi¬ 
derable trade and population; but as we have allotted so 
much space to the metropolis, our limits will not permit 
us to describe them more minutely. 

Manufactures and Commerce. Although Penn¬ 
sylvania is not so far advanced in manufactures as the an¬ 
cient, more populous, states of New England, yet she may 
boast of many considerable establishments that exhibit great 
proofs of her public spirit, enterprize and industry. The 
manufactures of flour, nails, wool and cotton cards, hats, 
hosiery, beer, porter, snuff, tobacco, paper, boots and shoes, 
cabinet wares, and carriages of pleasure, are prosecuted to 
a considerable amount, and form a respectable portion of 
her exports. In 1802 there were 28 furnaces making an¬ 
nually 21,000 tons of pigs and castings; 72 forges making 
12,960 tons of bar iron; 11 slitting mills making 27,750 
tons of plates, See. 12 tilting hammers, and two steel fur¬ 
naces making 150 tons of steel.—The foreign commerce 




508 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


is also very extensive: besides the articles above mention¬ 
ed, wheat, Indian corn, flax seed, tobacco, soap and can¬ 
dles, furs, iron, boards, staves and scantling, beef, pork, 
and a great variety of other articles of domestic produce; 
together with a large amount of re-exported foreign goods 
and merchandize, have been shipped in one year, to the 
value of twelve millions of dollars.—The imports are about 
the same value, comprising most of the principal manu¬ 
factures of Europe and India, as well as the produce and 
manufactures of the West India islands, the greatest part 
of all which are re-exported to the nations of Europe, or 
their colonies; while they are equally busy, cutting one 

another’s throats.-The shipping of Philadelphia was 

estimated in the year 1799 at 98,237 tons. 

Climate and Seasons. The air of Pennsylvania 
is very variable, and the transitions sudden: the variation 
has been as great as 50° in the course of a month. Some 
days the mercury in Farenheit’s thermometer has risen 
to 96° and at others it has fallen to 5° below 0. The me¬ 
dial heat is about 52°. The prevailing winds are wester¬ 
ly: of 726 observations, in two years, 360 were S. W. 
and W. 190 were N. W. and N. and the remainder vari- 
able, pretty often in the N. E. There are generally about 
200 clear days in the year; about 120 obscured with 
clouds, and between 40 and 50 attended with either rain 
or snow. The greatest proportion of fair weather is in 
October, and of rainy in April. The winter generally sets 
in about Christmas, and continues with a considerable va¬ 
riety of weather, chiefly freezing, till March: more rain 
and less snow than in the early periods of the colony. The 
frequent rains in the spring render the air chilly and dis¬ 
agreeable, but they soak the ground and prepare it for 
early vegetation, as soon as summer advances; whereby 
grain ripens and is cut down near a month earlier than it 
is in Europe. So wisely has the Great Creator diversified 
his dispensations for the benefit of manl 

Soil and Agriculture. The greatest part of the 
land in Pennsylvania is of a middling quality, inclining to 
clay and loam mixed with sand, and very capable of im¬ 
provement when worn out by bad management. The pro¬ 
portion of black rich mould is not inconsiderable, particu¬ 
larly on the banks and near the estuaries of the great rivers, 



PENNSYLVANIA. 


509 


as well as in the intervales between the mountains. But 
there is, nevertheless, a great deal of broken rocky land, 
which is at present valued only for its timber, and as a 

range for cattle.-This state is still pre-eminent for the 

cultivation of the useful grains, and for the skill and in¬ 
dustry of its farmers. By the introduction of gypsum or 
plaister ol Paris, and the cultivation of clover on upland, 
a great deal of the impoverished soil has been renovated 
within the last thirty years. 

Mountains. The first considerable chain that 

presents itself, like a cloud in the horizon, to a person tra¬ 
velling westward from Philadelphia, is the South mountain; 
distant from fifty to seventy miles from the sea, and extend¬ 
ing through the state, not in one continued ridge, but in 
broken detached elevations. Beyond these is a plain of 
rich land, highly cultivated, and abounding in many parts 
with limestone; and from ten to twenty miles farther west¬ 
ward rises the Kittitany or Endless mountain, so called 
from its very extensive length. This is not like the pre¬ 
ceding, broken into lofty peaks, but stretches in long uni¬ 
form ridges, scarcely half a mile perpendicular, in any 
place, above the intermediate vales. In some places this 
ridge seems to interlock with the towering Alleghany, 
which is the loftiest and most western ridge that intersects 
Pennsylvania; passing through Northampton, Dauphin, 
Bedford, Huntington and Fayette counties. The position 
of all these chains is principally from N. E. to S. W. 
though considerable spurs, shooting from each, deviate 
a few degrees from the general direction. 

Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Productions. 
Of the native quadrupeds of the American forests some 
are almost extirpated, and most of them very scarce in 
the old counties of Pennsylvania. The elk, deer, and 
beaver, are seldom seen even on the west side of the Al¬ 
leghany mountain; bears, wolves, foxes, racoons, opos¬ 
sums, rabbits and squirrels are more numerous; but their 
stock is so much reduced within fifty miles of the metro¬ 
polis, as hardly to compensate the sportsman for the trou¬ 
ble of hunting them.—Similar in a great degree has been 
the fate of the feathered tribes. The woods formerly 
abounded with turkeys, pheasants, grouse, pigeons, par¬ 
tridges, woodcocks; and the streams with a great variety 
of water fowl; all which are become comparatively scarce. 

u u 2 



510 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


This perhaps is owing to the indiscriminate right every 
man has to carry his gun, and to shoot game.— 1 he prin¬ 
cipal and most productive mines in the state are those of 
iron; these have yielded nearly 20,000 tons of iron for ex¬ 
portation, in one year, besides supplying the numerous de¬ 
mands of home consumption. Some parts of the state 
abound with excellent coal, near the surface of the earth, 
though no considerable body of it has yet been discovered 
near enough to the city to supply it with a cheap fuel. 
There are also copper and lead mines, but they have hi¬ 
therto yielded no considerable profit to the owners, owing 
principally to the high price of labour. 

Rivers, Bays and Lakes. The Delaware, called 
by the aborigines Poutaxat, is the noblest stream in Penn¬ 
sylvania, and divides it from the state of New Jersey, ris¬ 
ing principally in the mountains of New York. Its course 
is nearly north and south, and length about 160 miles; the 
greater part of which distance it is navigated by long fiat 
bottomed boats—The tide flows about 130 miles from the 
ocean, or 30 miles above Philadelphia, rising about six 
feet, with a common flood. At the city it is about a mile 
wide, and navigable by ships of 1200 tons burden.—The 
western branch of this river, called the Lehigh, approach¬ 
es within 28 miles of the Susquehanna, and a turnpike 
road is now forming, to facilitate the transportation of pro¬ 
duce from one stream to the other.—The Schuylkill, which 
may be considered as another branch of Delaware, as they 
unite about 100 miles from the ocean, rises in the moun¬ 
tains of Berks county, and mingles its waters with the 
Delaware about four miles below Philadelphia. In Schuyl¬ 
kill the tide flows but five miles above its mouth, being 
stopped there by a considerable ledge of rocks; but it is 
navigated by boats and setting poles sixty or seventy miles 

farther.-The Susquehanna has its principal springs in 

Northumberland and Luzerne counties. The two branches 
that form this river unite at Sunbury, about 120 miles from 
the metropolis: thence the main stream flows in a south 
direction through Pennsylvania, to within a few miles of 
its outlet; where meeting the line of Maryland it enters 
that state, and e.mpties into the Chesapeake near the head 
of the bay. Although the length of this river is about 250 
miles, the tide rises but a short distance, owing to sever¬ 
al considerable ledges of rocks that render the navigation 



DELAWARE. 


511 


dangerous except in freshets. Should the rivalry between 
Pennsylvania avid Maryland rise high enough to excite 
sensations of hostility between them, the navigation of the 
Susquehanna will become the source of contention; as 
that of the Scheld formerly was between the House of 
Austria and the United Provinces, being terminated only 
by the 7 intervention of a stronger claimant, without any 
right, who wrested the jurisdiction from both.—The Ju¬ 
niata which runs through/some of the western counties, 
and unites with the Susquehanna about 10 miles above Har- 
risburgh, is a bold stream, uninterrupted by falls, and navi¬ 
gable by large boats 50 or 60 miles.-On the western 

side of the Alleghany mountain is the river Ohio, and its 
two auxiliary branches^ the Alleghany and Monongahela, 
one of which pursues a north and the other a south course 
through the frontier counties of Pennsylvania. All these 
waters, together with some others not noticed, are so 
happily disposed, and approach one another in their ra¬ 
mifications in so many places, as must, in a few years, 
with the aid of canals and turnpike roads, become the 
source of incalculable wealth to this central and flourishing 
state.—There are no bays within the iimits of Pennsylva¬ 
nia, as that of the river Delaware washes the shore of 
New Jersey state, on one side, and that of Delaware, on 
the other. The north western corner of Pennsylvania is 
bounded by lake Erie, part of it therefore may be said to 
belong to this state. This angle has lately been formed 
into a new county, denominated Erie, and contains about 
1600 inhabitants. 


DELAWARE. 


Situation and Extent. THIS State lies between 
the latitudes of 38° 29|' and 39° 54' north, and in the lon¬ 
gitude of 0 40 / VV. from Philadelphia, or about 76 9 W. 
from London, and is bounded on the east by the bay and 
river of the same name; on the north by a circular line 





512 


DELAWARE. 


which separates it from Pennsylvania; and on the south 
as well as west by the state of Maryland. It contains 
about 2000 square miles, or about one million three hun¬ 
dred thousand acres. 

Original Population. Of the savage tribes 
who possessed this country before the arrival of the Euro¬ 
peans we have but an imperfect knowledge: the most dis¬ 
tinguished perhaps was the Susquehannocks, from whom 
was derived the name of a considerable river in the vicinity. 
The Hollanders were probably the first Europeans who 
planted a colony on the shores of the Delaware, including 
this peninsula, together with New Jersey and New York, 
under the general appellation of the New Netherlands, as 
early as the year 1623. 

Memorable Events. As this state was formerly 
considered as an appendage of Pennsylvania, belonging to 
the same proprietor, always governed by the same Execu¬ 
tive chief magistrate, and nearly by the same laws, its prin¬ 
cipal events to the period of the American revolution were 
connected with those of Pennsylvania and have been de¬ 
tailed already. Delegates appointed to meet the general 
Congress at Philadelphia, Aug. 1 , 1774. 

I he state Constitution framed, June 12, 1792. 

Federal Constitution ratified, Dec. 3, 1787. 

Religion. The religious sects in this state are 
not as numerous as those of Pennsylvania. The Presbyte¬ 
rians and Quakers are perhaps the most prevailing, but 
there are many congregations of Episcopalians, Baptists, 
and Methodists. The members of the Swedish church are 
comparatively few, but their place of worship, still remain¬ 
ing at Wilmington, is one of the first that was built in this 
country. No preference is given by law or constitution to 
any particular society: but the patriots who framed the 
constitution were not ashamed to declare the state a Chris¬ 
tian republic, and to publish to the world that they prefer¬ 
red the religion of Jesus Christ to that of either Mahomet 
or Confucius. Every officer of this state is obliged to de¬ 
clare his belief in the divinity of Jesus Christ, and the in¬ 
spiration of the Holy Scriptures, before he is permitted to 
enter on the duties of his appointment. 

Government and Laws. The civil code of the 
state varies but little from that of Pennsylvania. A longer 
residence is necessary, in a candidate for the office of gover- 


DELAWARE. 


513 


norland he has not even a suspending negative on the 
making of laws.— 1 he members of the Senate are elected 
but for three years, and of course the rotation is only of one 
third of the number annually: but the qualifications of the 
members ol both houses are more judiciously defined. A 
Senator must be 27 years of age, and possess a freehold of 
200 acres of land, or other estate worth 1000/. and a repre¬ 
sentative must be 24 years of age, and be also a freeholder. 
With the consent of the governor, and three fourths of both 
houses, any alteration may be made in the constitution; but 
a state convention cannot be called, unless the requisition 
has been expressly voted for by the people, at a general elec¬ 
tion.—-In this as in most of the states the clergy are dis¬ 
qualified to hold any civil office in the commonwealth, which 
perhaps is a wise regulation; for if a clergyman preserve 
his appropriate influence in the legislative body, it will in 
some measure interfere with the freedom of discussion, and 
abridge the independence of other members, which ought 
ever to be avoided: but the great danger lies in the diminu¬ 
tion of his own respectability and usefulness as a minister 
of the gospel, which God knows is already too small. If 
the present generation pay too little regard to the grave 
advice of a man whom they meet but once a week, in the 
house of prayer, and hear reasoning only on the great con¬ 
cerns of another world, on “ righteousness, temperance, and 
a judgment to come,” how much more lightly will they 
esteem him, if they behold hiir. engaged in political squab¬ 
bles, managed often with heat and rancour, and discover 
that he is a slave to the same passions, and involved in the 
same intrigues, as themselves. Were this man, like John 
the Baptist, a a burning and shining light” while confined 
to the duties of his sacred office, he would soon be shorn of 
his beams, by such an intercourse with the profane.—The 
state sends two senators and one representative to Con¬ 
gress. Senators appointed by a joint ballot of the two 
houses: representatives elected by a plurality of the people. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. The 
state of Delaware is divided into three counties, New Cas¬ 
tle, Kent and Sussex, all bounding eastward on the river of 
the same name, and these again are subdivided into Hun¬ 
dreds. The number of inhabitants according to the last 
census was 64,273, six thousand one hundred and twenty 
three of whom were slaves. The population is about 32 


514 


DELAWARE. 


persons to a square mile. The increase in ten years, about 
4000. The militia of the state forms one division con¬ 
sisting of three brigades. 

Manners, Customs, and Language. 1 he in¬ 
habitants of this state are principally descended from Eng¬ 
lish ancestors: there are a few Swedish faiYiilies; and a 
full proportion of Irish extraction; as many of the emi¬ 
grants from Ireland, who land at New Castle, settle in this 
state, although they intend at first to go to Pennsylvania. 
There are but few Germans; and the language and man¬ 
ners in general, are assimilated with those of the Eng¬ 
lish inhabitants of Pennsylvania, retaining a considerable 
portion of the sedate and orderly character of the origi¬ 
nal settlers, averse from innovation and riot. 

Seminaries of Learning. There is an academy 
at Wilmington, and another at New-Ark, in the state of 
Delaware: the latter is pretty well supported. Private 
schools are sufficiently numerous in every part of the com¬ 
monwealth; nor has the legislature been inattentive to the 
general education, having appropriated a sufficient fund 
for the support of public schools. 

Chief Towns. The principal town is Wilming¬ 
ton, in New Castle county, situated on the north bank of 
the river Christianna, about two miles from its junction 
with the Delaware, and contains about 3,500 inhabitants. 
It supports a considerable foreign as well as domestic trade; 
has a bank of discount and deposit; and when the grand 
canal between Delaware and Chesapeak bays is perfected, 
this town will become the depot of a great mass of produce 

and merchandise.-New Castle, about 35 miles below 

Philadelphia, on the Delaware, is an inconsiderable town, 
though the seat of the county courts, and the most ancient 
town on the river, having been built by the Swedes about 
the year 1627. It contains about 60 houses, and these ex¬ 
hibit an appearance of decay.-Dover, which is the seat 

of the sta-te government, stands on Jones’ creek, a few 
miles from Delaware river, and about 28 below Wilming¬ 
ton. This town contains about 100 houses, mostly of brick, 
and has altogether a lively thriving appearance. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The manufac¬ 
ture for which this state is most famous is that of flour. 
The merchant mills built on the tide water of the Brandy¬ 
wine creek give constant employment to about 200 per- 




DELAWARE. 


515 


sons, and have manufactured upwards of 300,000 bushels 
of grain, principally wheat, in the course of six months. 
But besides these, there are other constructions higher up 
the same water, for sawing stone, manufacturing of paper, 

snuff, nail rods, sheet iron, &c-The foreign trade of 

Wilmington, which is the principal sea-port of the state, 
is very considerable; the exports in the year 1802 having 
amounted to 440,500 dollars, principally of domestic pro¬ 
duce and manufactures. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of this penin¬ 
sula differs but little from that of Pennsylvania, but being 
a flat country, and almost incirded by two large bays, its 
atmosphere is more humid as well as temperate. Heavy 
fogs, intermittent fevers, and brackish water, render the 
inhabitants of the two southern counties a pale and sickly 
race. The northern and north-western parts, which bor¬ 
der on Pennsylvania, being higher ground and intersected 
by some considerable hills, possess purer water and a more 
elastic air. 

Soil and Agriculture. The soil of the lower 
part of this state is sandy, there hardly being stone enough 
on turn plantations to line a single well: their buildings, 
therefore, are mostly constructed with bricks. Indian corn 
and rye are the grains chiefly cultivated, except in the 
northern part where the soil partakes of clay, and pro¬ 
duces middling crops of wheat. Clover is introduced into 
most of the plantations, where the soil will admit of it. 

Animal and Vegetable Productions. The 
animals of Delaware are the same as in Pennsylvania; the 
principal forest trees are cedars and pines, which grow 
with great exuberance; and the drained meadows yield 
heavy crops of a coarse natural grass. 

Rivers and Bays. There is no river within the 
limits of this state but the one which gives it a name, and 
washes its eastern boundary. It is irrigated by numerous 
smaller streams; those of most note are the Brandywine, 
the Christianna, Jones’ creek, Mother-kill, Mispillion, and 
Indian river. The great bay of Delaware extends along 
the eastern shore of the slate from Bombay-hook to the 
light-house at Cape Henlopen; and Rehobath bay, once 
noted for its banks of oysters, runs up to the mouth of In¬ 
dian river, and is united with the Atlantic ocean, near the 
southern limits of the state. 



MARYLAND. 


Situation and Extent. MARYLAND is situ¬ 
ated between 37° 56' and 39° 44' north latitudes, and the 
longitude of 0 and 4° 30' west from Philadelphia, or of 
75° and 79° west from London. It is hounded on the east 
by the Atlantic and the state of Delaware; on the north by 
Pennsylvania; on the south and west by the river Potomac 
which separates it from Virginia, and an ideal line extend¬ 
ing from the mouth of that river in a due eastern direction 
to the Atlantic ocean, containing about 14,000 square miles, 
or about nine millions of acres; near a sixth water. 

Original Population. The Susquehannock and 
Potomac Indians, who gave their names to the two great 
rivers which in some measure bound the state of Mary¬ 
land, were among the most noted savage tribes that were 
the original lords of this territory. From some of these 
the first English adventurers who settled here, purchased 
a considerable tract of land in the spring of 1633, when 
they laid the foundation of a town which they called St. 
Mary’s, near the mouth of the great river Potomac. 

Memorable Invents. 1632. The grant from king 
Charles to Cecilius Calvert, lord Baltimore. 1633. The 
first emigrants, under the conduct of lord Baltimore’s bro¬ 
ther, arrive and settle at St. Mary’s. In the same year 
the Virginians complain of this grant as a dismemberment 
of their colony; but Baltimore’s patent is confirmed. 

1634—5. The first assembly convened, consisting of all 
the freemen. 

1639. In consequence of the rapid increase of the co¬ 
lony, principally by Roman Catholics, a legislature is 
composed of the representatives of the freemen, called 
Burgesses, and of others summoned by the governor’s 
special writ: they were afterwards divided into two dis¬ 
tinct branches. 

1642. An Indian war which lasted several years, and 
did great mischief to the colony in its infant state. 




^MARYLAND. 


5 If 

1645. An insurrection in favour of Cromwell and the 
1 ailiament, under the conduct of one Clayborne, by which 
. 9 alvert > tl \ e r °y al governor, was forced to fly to Virginia 
lor protection. Calvert agreeing afterwards to submit to 
the Parliament, returned and governed in peace till 1651 ; 
when fresh contention broke out, and rose at length to a 
civil war. The governor with some of the Roman Catho¬ 
lics is obliged once more to desert the province. The vic¬ 
torious party, being chiefly Presbyterians, passed a law to 
proscribe popery and prelacy. This scene of hypocrisy 
and oppression continued till the restoration. Many of 
these Presbyterians had fled hither from Virginia, to obtain 
religious liberty, which, when invested with power, they 
were unwilling to grant to others. 

1660. The old government restored, Philip Calvert, a 
brother of lord Baltimore, appointed governor. 

1676. Cecilius Calvert lord Baltimore died. At this time 
the province contained 16,000 inhabitants. Its prosperity 
owing to the wise and mild administration of the Calverts. 

1689. The government taken from lord Baltimore, for 
his supposed attachment to king James II. 

1692. A law passed establishing the Protestant religion. 

1699. Annapolis made the seat of government. 

1716. The government restored to the proprietor. 

1762. The boundary line between Pennsylvania and 
Maryland, which had long been a subject of dispute be¬ 
tween the proprietors, finally settled by Mason and Dixon. 

Five delegates appointed to meet the first general coi* 
gress at Philadelphia, June 22d, 1774. 

During the American war, the people, or the govern¬ 
ment of this state, forgetting their many and great obliga¬ 
tions to the Baltimore family, confiscated their estate, va¬ 
lued at 570,000/. currency. 

State constitution framed, August, 1776. Altered and 
amended in 1789, ’95 and ’99. Federal constitution rati¬ 
fied, February 28, 1788, by a majority of 63 to 12. 

Religion. As the first proprietor of Maryland, 
as well as a great part of the first settlers, were Roman 
Catholics, this religious society has always been perhaps 
the most numerous: at their head is a bishop of very re¬ 
spectable character and connections. But as they have 
from the earliest period manifested a truly catholic spirit, 
which ought to be commemorated to their praise, and as 

X x 


5 i 8 


MARYLAND. 


there now exists the most perfect equality of rights, other 
religious sects have multiplied in almost every part of the 
state. There are several very respectable congregations of 
Episcopalians, Presbyterians,Quakers, Baptists and Metho¬ 
dists among the English, as well as of Lutherans and Cal¬ 
vinists among the Germans. A declaration of belief in the 
Christian religion is required of all the officers of govern¬ 
ment ; but no gift or devise can be made, of more than twd 
afcres of land, for any religious use, without a special license 
first obtained from the legislature. 

Government and Laws. The constitution of 
this state has some peculiar features. The legislature 
consists of two branches, a house of delegates, and a senate, 
styled together the General Assembly : the former are cho-* 
sen annually by the people ; a member must be of full 
age; possess an estate worth 500/. currency ; and have re¬ 
sided in the state one year prior to his election. This branch 
originates all money bills, but dare not tack any extraneous 
matter to them, and they have the appointment of the 
principal fiscal officers.—The senate consists of 15 mem¬ 
bers, nine for the western, and six for the eastern shore, 
and are chosen by electors, once in five years. The qualifi¬ 
cations required are, a residence in the state three year.s 
preceding the election, the age of 25 years, and an estate 
worth 1000/. currency. If any vacancy happen in this 
chamber, between the periods of election, it is filled by an 
appointment of its own members.—The electors of the se¬ 
nate are chosen by the people at large (which destroys its 
efficacy as a check) and every white male, of full age, who 
has resided one year in the county, and is worth 30/. has 
a right of suffrage—and to add to the evil, votes are 
given viva voce. Except in bills for raising revenue, the 
poWei's and privileges of the two branches are equal.—The 
governor, who isjthe chief executive magistrate, is elected 
by the legislature, annually, and is re-eligible three years 
out of seven. The qualifications requisite, are a residence 
in the state five years ; the age of 25 years ; and an estate 
worth 5000/. currency, one half in freehold: he may be 
prosecuted in a court of law for misconduct, and displaced 
from office.—His powers are very limited. He is styled 
commander in chief; but without the concurrence of the 
executive council, consisting of five members, he can grant 
neither pardons nor reprieves, nor appoint or remove of- 


MARYLAND. 


519 

licers of government—nor has he any negative on the laws. 
— The principal judiciary officers, are a chancellor, judges 
and justices of the peace, who are appointed by the gover¬ 
nor and council, and hold their offices during good beha¬ 
viour. Their salaries are established by law, and cannot be 
changed while they continue in office.—This state sends 
two senators and nine representatives to the general con¬ 
gress. Senators are appointed by a joint ballot of botli 
houses: the representatives, elected by a plurality of the 
people in districts. 

Divisions, Population, and Militia. Mary¬ 
land is divided into nineteen counties ; eight on the eastern, 
and eleven on the western shore of Chesapeak bay. The 
number of inhabitants in 1800 was 349,692, of which near¬ 
ly one-third were slaves. The population about 25 persons 
to a square mile. Although this state has grown consider¬ 
ably in wealth and commerce since the revolution, its in¬ 
crease of inhabitants has been very inadequate, not one 
per centum annually for the last ten years. The militia 
may be about 30,000 men. Whites under 16 years, 89,868 ; 
above, 1 10,257. Of 45 years and upwards, 11,439. White 
males, 107,150— ditto females, 92,975. 

Manners, Customs, and Language. In deli¬ 
neating the character of a ftation correctly, we must take 
it from the inhabitants of the country who, almost every 
where, but especially in the United States, constitute the 
great mass of population. In the large trading towns of 
the Union, there is a great similarity of character, produc¬ 
ed by frequent intercourse, and the common genius of 
commerce: their speculations, and in some degree, their 
manners are moulded in the same moral forms. But 
among the peasantry, who live more isolated, and whose 
peculiar features are more distinctly marked, there are ob¬ 
vious shades of difference ; and these shades begin to shew 
themselves more sensibly to the eye of an inquisitive tra¬ 
veller as he progresses southward. He no longer beholds 
so great a proportion of hardy, industrious, and healthful 
yeomanry, living on terms of equality and independence ; 
their domestic economy neat and comfortable ; their farms 
well stocked ; in good order; and their cattle sleek and 
thriving. On the contrary he discovers the farm-houses 
more thinly scattered, some of them miserable hovels, the 
retreats of small proprietors who are too indolent or too 


520 


MARYLAND. 


proud to labour; here and there a stack of corn-fodder, and 
vhe cattle looking as miserable as their owners. A few 
miles distant perhaps he finds a large mansion house, the 
property of the lord of two or three thousand acj’es of land, 
surrounded by 50 or 100 negro-huts, constructed in the 
slightest manner; and about these cabins swarms of black 
slaves, some in rags, and others in fiuris naturalibus; with 
here and there a sprinkling of yellow, the fruits of a licen¬ 
tious commerce between white men and the female slaves. 
Rut to relieve this sombre portrait, which, however disa- 
gi eeable, will apply to a portion of most of the southern 
states, it is but just to observe, that many of the gentry 
are distinguishable for their polished manners and educa¬ 
tion, as well as for their great hospitality to strangers. As 
the multitude of slaves has essentially injured the moral 
character, so it has in some measure corrupted the lan¬ 
guage of the white inhabitants: the pronunciation and 
phraseology, among the peasantry, is very corrupt, and 
may distinguished by the epithet of Creolian. 

Seminaries of Learning. There are several 
literary institutions in this state which reflect an honour on 
the liberal spirit-of the inhabitants: the principal are, an 
academy in Somerset county, founded in 1779, by private 
donations and subscriptions; a college at Chester, founded 
in 1782, and endowed by government with a handsome in¬ 
come of 1250/. currency ; another in Annapolis, endowed 
with 1750/. per annum. In 1784, the Roman Catholics 
erected a college at George-town; and in 1785, the Me¬ 
thodists established another at Abingdon, in Harford coun¬ 
ty. The government has also made provision for the 
maintenance of free schools in every county of the state 
though the law has not yet been carried into full operation! 
Many of the youth of the best families, in this as well as all 
the soutnein states, go abroad, some to Europe, to perfect 
their education. 

Revenues and Expenses. The revenues of go- 
vei nment are prociuced by duties on exports and imports, 
and by taxes on estates real and personal, which amounted 
to 363,772 dollars, in seven years ending in 1798. The an¬ 
nual expenses are about 53,000 dollars, equal to a capita¬ 
tion tax of sixteen cents per head. 

Chief Towns. The capital of Maryland is the 
small city of Annapolis, in Ann-Arundel county, contain,- 


MARYLAND. 


521 


ing’ but about 2000 inhabitants. Although it can boast 
of but little trade, it possesses great wealth, some very ele¬ 
gant buildings, public and private, and has been selected as 
the seat of government, before as well as since the revo¬ 
lution. I he Marylanders have studied to deviate as little 
as possible from their ancient habits.—But the most re¬ 
markable town is Baltimore, on the Patapsco river; in point 
of size as well as commerce it is the fourth in the American 
confederacy. At the period of the last general enumera¬ 
tion it contained 26,514 inhabitants. Fell’s Point, which 
may be considered as part of the town, possesses an excel¬ 
lent harbour, where all the large vessels lade and unlade, 
the more ancient or western part having but shallow water, 
i here are in the town nine places of public religious wor¬ 
ship ; three banks, besides a branch of that of the United 
States, and several insurance companies.—The town next 
in consideration is Frederick-town, in Frederick county, 
situated in a rich fertile country, and containing about 
2,600 inhabitants, principally Germans, or their descend¬ 
ants ; which will soon be rivalled by Hagers-town, on the 
west side of the south mountain, in Washington county, 
erected in the bosom of a fertile valley filled with opu¬ 
lent farmers. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The manu¬ 
factures of Maryland are not very numerous. The chief 
are those of flour, iron and paper, besides a few coarse ar¬ 
ticles made of wool or flax by the farmers, for domestic 
consumption. The trade is nevertheless very extensive. 
Besides the wheat, flour, Indian corn, pork, lumber, and 
iron, produced in the state, they export from Baltimore a 
great deal of what is raised in the western counties of 
Pennsylvania.—The total of the exports from this state in 
the year 1802, was valued at 8,000,000 of dollars. The 
imports are nearly to the same amount, from Europe, the 
East and West Indies, though the major part is either re¬ 
exported or dispersed by land into the interior of the neigh¬ 
bouring states. 

Climate and Seasons. There is a considerable 
diversity in the atmosphere of this state. All the Eastern 
shore, and a considerable part of the Western, enjoys a mild 
and temperate air; but it being loaded with exhalations 
from the Chesapeake and the numerous streams which ir-: 
rigate this level country, produces annually a sickly crop pf 

Xx2 


522 


MARYLAND. 


intermittents. Frederick and Washington counties in the 
north-western extremity of the state enjoy a more salubri¬ 
ous air, being, like Pennsylvania, variegated with hills and 
dales, and abounding with wholesome water from upper 
and nether springs.—According to meteorological observa¬ 
tions made in this state, the mercury ranges in Fahrenheit’s 
thermometer, from 93° to 10°. The medial heat about 
60°. From 524 memorandums in the years 1753—4 the 
winds were 207 N. W. 72 S. E. 71 E. 59 N. E. &c.—and 
from 493 observations on the weather, in the same years, 
there were 314 fair days and 179 cloudy, &c. 

Bays and Rivers. The Chesapeak bay which we 
have had occasion to mention already, divides this state 
into what are called the Eastern and Western shores, and 
is the largest in the United States, being fed by numer¬ 
ous tributary rivers. This expansive bason contains many 
valuable fisheries, and is the common highway of a very ex¬ 
tensive internal commerce.—The principal rivers of Mary¬ 
land that fall into this bay are the Susquehanna, already 
described under the head of Pennsylvania; the Patapsco, 
an inconsiderable stream, being only about 30 yards wide, 
a small distance above the bason on winch is erected the 
city of Baltimore ; the Patuxent which rises in Ann-Arun- 
del county, and tails into the bay a few miles north of the 
Potomac; and the Severn which washes the w r alls of An¬ 
napolis.—On the Eastern shore are the Chester, Choptank, 
Pocomoke, and Nanticoke, which are considerable streams, 
and the channels of a valuable commerce through the se¬ 
veral counties of this wealthy peninsula. Of the Potomac 
we will take farther notice when we come to treat of Vir¬ 
ginia. 


VIRGINIA. 


Situation and Extent. VIRGINIA is com¬ 
prised between 36° 30' and 40° 30' north latitude, and the 
longitude of 0 and 8° west from Philadelphia, or 7a° 5 4' 
.and 83° 8' west from London ; containing about 70,000 




VIRGINIA. 


523 


square miles, equal to about 44,000,000 of acres, inclusive 
of water. On the east, it is bounded by the Atlantic ; on 
the north and north-west by Pennsylvania, the rivers Ohio 
and Potomac ; on the west by Kentucky ; and on the south 
by Tennessee and North Carolina. 

Original Population. When the English made 
their first settlement in \ irginia, in the year 1607, this 
country, u from the sea-coast to the mountains, and from 
Potomac to the southern waters of James river, was occu¬ 
pied by upwards of forty different tribes of Indians. Of 
these the Powhatans, the Mannahoaes, and the Monacans 
were the most powerful/’ The territories of the Powha¬ 
tan confederacy alone comprehended about 8000 square 
miles, and about 8000 inhabitants. These numerous tribes 
are all nearly extinct: Of forty nations and upwards, there 
are hardly forty persons left to witness the baleful pro¬ 
gress of European civilization. 

Memorable Events. 1584. Sir W. Raleigh, 
having obtained a patent from queen Elizabeth, sent the 
first colony to V irginia, under the command of Amadas 
and Barlow, who effected a landing on an island-in Albe¬ 
marle sound : but quarrelling with the natives, they were 
forced to quit the country, in June of the year following. 
They carried with them the first tobacco leaves that were 
seen in England, and taught the use of it to their country¬ 
men. 

1596. Sir W. Raleigh assigned his patent to Sir Thomas 
Smith and Co. 

1607. The design renewed ; 105 adventurers under cap¬ 
tain Newport entered James river, and settled upon a spot 
near its mouth which they afterwards called James-Town. 

1608. In a battle with the natives, captain Smith, the 
English commander, is taken prisoner. Ilis life is saved 
by the intercession of Focahonta, an Indian princess, who 
rushed between the victim and his executioner. 

1* 10. The colony in great distress are about to desert 
the country, but are prevented by the seasonable arrival of 
Lord Delawar, with a considerable reinforcement, from 
his administration may be dated the permanent establish¬ 
ment of V irginia. 

16 i2. The colony thrives: an advantageous treaty form¬ 
ed with Indians, by which these engage to supply the whites 
with a stipulated quantity of Indian corn, annually. 


524 


VIRGINIA. 


Rolfe, a very respectable planter, married the Indian 
princess Pocahonta. 

About this time the land was first divided into lots, and 
granted to individuals in full property ; it having been cul¬ 
tivated before by joint labour, and the produce carried 
into common store-houses. The existence of martial law 
conduces greatly to preserve peace and subordination. 

1616. The culture of tobacco pursued with industry. 

A cargo of young women, of humble birth, but virtuous 
character, imported, to the great benefit of the colony, and 
increase of white inhabitants. 

The Dutch arrived with a cargo of black slaves, the first 
that were introduced into the British colonies, and sold them 
to the planters. 

•1619. The first assembly of representatives met to enact 
laws for the colony. 

Trade opened with the Hollanders for tobacco: and 
trading houses established at Flushing, Sec. 

The Indians plot the total extirpation of the whites, and 
massacre a prodigious number of the dispersed inhabitants 
•—which is retaliated by the whites, with equal treachery. 

1625. The tyrannical conduct of Charles the first caused 
great discontent and confusion. The inhabitants seized 
their governor, Sir John Harvey, and sent him prisoner to 
England. 

1639. Sir William Berkley’s wise administration restor¬ 
ed peace and good order. At the commencement of the 
civil war in England, Virginia adhered to the crown. 

1650. In consequence of this conduct, the English par¬ 
liament denounced the inhabitants as traitors ; and in the 
year following they equipped a considerable force, naval 
and military, to subdue the colony, which after a short 
struggle is obliged to submit. 

1676. The planters were discontented with the conduct 
of king Charles II. in granting large tracts of land to his 
friends and favourites. This caused a rebellion in the pro¬ 
vince under the leading of Bacon, an artful ambitious de¬ 
magogue. The insurgents march in great force to James- 

Fown, and oblige their governor and his friends to fiv into 
Maryland. J 

1677. The insurrection ceased on the death of Bacon, 
the principal conspirator. Sir W. Berkley, the legitimate 
governor is re-instated. 


VIRGINIA. 


325 


i688. r l he inhabitants exceed sixty thousand souls. 

1692-8. Charter and endowment of William and Mary 
college. State house at James-Town with many valuable 
papers consumed by fire. Seat of government removed to 
Williamsburgh. 

Seven delegates appointed to meet the general congress 
at Philadelphia, August 5, 1774. 

State constitution framed July 5, 1776. 

Federal constitution ratified June 25, 1788,by a majority 
of 89 to 79. J 

Religion. High church bigotry raged in Virgi¬ 
nia, for near a century, as furiously as Presbyterian zeal 
once flamed in New England, hanging by the neck, boring 
the tongue, and a few other pious pranks excepted; but it 
was succeeded in the predominant church by a love of 
pleasure, and an indifference about religion that bordered 
on total dereliction.—Long before the revolution, dissen¬ 
ters of almost every denomination were not only tolerated, 
but increased rapidly with the growing population of the 
province. After the establishment of independence, the 
rights of conscience were confirmed by special acts of the 
state government, and all sects now enjoy a perfect equal¬ 
ity. The most numerous denomination of Christians at 
the present period is that of Presbyterians; these with 
other dissenting sects, such as quakers, anabaptists, me- 
thodists, See. occupy some part of eastern, and the princi¬ 
pal settlements in western Virginia. 

Government and Laws. The constitution of 
this state differs not much from that of Maryland. The 
governor is appointed annually by a concurrent ballot of the 
two houses of legislature, and is re-eligible three years 
out of seven. The constitution requires no other qualifi¬ 
cation but the age of 30 years.—Fie has a privy council of 
eight members, who are also chosen by the assembly, with 
whom he is bound to advise on all important subjects of a 
public concern. With their concurrence he may grant re¬ 
prieves and pardons, except when the legislature has pro¬ 
secuted, or the law directs otherwise —The only public of¬ 
ficers he appoints are justices of the peace and militia 
officers. In short he is very little more than a state pa¬ 
geant, and is paid accordingly, for by an estimate pub¬ 
lished in Mr. Jefferson’s notes, he receives but 3,333-! dol¬ 
lars per gnnurm which is about one-half of what the Penn- 


526 


VIRGINIA. 


sylvanians pay their chief magistrate. In a ease of va¬ 
cancy, the president of the privy council, who is always 
chosen by themselves, acts as governor.—The legislature, 
which is styled the general assembly, is formed of two 
branches, viz. a senate consisting of 24 members, elected 
by the people quadrennially, with an annual renovation of 
one-fourth, and a chamber of delegates which is elected by 
the people every year.—Every county sends two members, 
without respect to its population, which gives the old coun¬ 
ties that are the most numerous, though least populous, an 
undue preponderance in all the councils of the state.—The 
principal qualification required in a candidate for either 
house, is a residence, and a freehold in the county he is 
chosen to represent.—Bills originate in the chamber of 
delegates, which the senate may amend, or wholly reject, 
if they think proper, unless the bills are for raising a reve¬ 
nue which they cannot amend, but must adopt or reject in 
toto .~The assembly nominate the state treasurer, and all 
the principal officers of the judiciary department, during 
good behaviour, and may cause them to be prosecuted for 
misconduct.—Justice is dispensed either by justices of the 
peace, who decide finally in causes not exceeding 10 dol¬ 
lars in value ; by county courts in disputes not exceeding 
lo? or where the title or hounds of aw n 

Jwwl - B *‘ w * - -VW W 41UC 

concerned ; by a court of chancery, a general court, or a 
court of admiralty.—There is also a court of errors and 
appeals, to correct th£ mistakes of inferior tribunals, which 
meets twice a year at the seat of government.—Freeholders 
only enjoy the right of suffrage at elections; but an aliei\ 
removing to the state, with a design to settle, acquires all 
the rights of a native citizen, upon taking an oath of fideli¬ 
ty.—The importation ol slaves is prohibited under a penal¬ 
ty of 1000/. currency.—The state is represented in general 
congress by two senators and 22 representatives; senators 
are appointed by a joint ballot of the two houses: repre¬ 
sentatives are elected by freeholders in districts. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. Virginia 
is divided into about SO counties, and these are formed into 
parishes of various dimensions, dependent on the number 
and situation of the episcopal churches. Agreeably to the 
census of 1800, this state contained 886,149 inhabitants, 
which gives about \2i persons to a square mile ; of these 
nearly two-fifths were slaves, mostly black. Increase in 10 


VIRGINIA. 


52 7 


years, from 1790 to 1800 was 138,539, which is a great 
falling off from the progress of population about the mid¬ 
dle of the eighteenth century. The inhabitants in the year 
1756 were estimated at 173,316 and in 1774 at 300,000. 
Increase in 18 years 126,684, or a duplication in 24-^ years. 
Male whites 264,159, females 254,485 ; under 16 years of 
both sexes 260,988, above 247,586; of 45 years and up¬ 
wards 58,000. By the last returns made to congress the 
militia amounted to about 60,000. and the muskets to 6,530. 

Manners, Language and Customs. We have 
very little to add under this head, to our preceding obser¬ 
vations on the manners, customs, and language of Mary¬ 
land. If the planters of Virginia differ from their neigh¬ 
bours at all, it is in possessing more hauteur, as members 
6f the ancient dominion, and citizens of a more influential 
state, less qualified by the republican spirit of commerce. 
But all our remarks on this head apply chiefly to the inha¬ 
bitants living on the east side of the Blue Ridge ; the wes¬ 
tern part of the state has fewer blacks and more labouring 
whites, in proportion ; being settled in a great measure by 
emigrants from Pennsylvania and New Jersey, who differ 
much from their eastern neighbours. 

Seminaries of Learning. The principal public 
school in Virginia, is the college of William and Mary at 
Williamsburgh, which was founded in the reign of king 
William and queen Mary, and endowed by them with a 
grant of 20,000 acres of land, and a penny a pound duty 
on tobacco, as well as some considerable privileges. The 
assembly further enriched the institution by a duty on li¬ 
quors, and on skins and furs exported ; the joint produce 
of these funds was upwards of 3000/. currency per ann.— 
The buildings though not constructed in an elegant style, 
are of bricks, and large enough to accommodate one hun¬ 
dred students, though there are seldom above thirty or forty 
educated at any one time.—There is another college in 
Prince Edward county, as well as several academies in 
other parts of the state, as at Alexandria, Norfolk, Hanover, 
&c.—Most of the counties are furnished with common 
English schools, where children are taught to read, write 
and cast accounts. 

Revenues and Expenses. The revenues of this 
state in the year 1802, were estimated at 532,765 dollars, 


528 


VIRGINIA. 


and the expenses at 377,703 dollars, the latter amounting 
to about 43 cents per head, in a capitation tax. 

Chief Cities and Towns. l he inhabitants ol 
Virginia are employed mostly in agricultural pursuits, and, 
their foreign trade being divided among several sea ports, 
owing to the many navigable rivers that intersect their 
country, they have no considerable capital.— The largest 
town in the state is Alexandria, situated on the Potomac, 
about ten miles below the city of Washington. It is a 
thriving commercial place, has a bank, and contains about 
7000 inhabitants —But the principal mart of foreign com¬ 
merce, and the most thriving sea port in Virginia, is the 
borough of Norfolk; lying near the entrance of the Chesa- 
peak, the navigation to it is always open. The inhabitants 
at the time of the last census were about 7000;—Rich¬ 
mond, which is situated on the James river, and is the pre¬ 
sent seat of government, has 573T inhabitants. Petersburgh 
on the Appomattox, though a place of considerable trade, 
has but 352 1 inhabitants.—One-half of the inhabitants of 
all these towns, except Alexandria, are blacks or mulattoes, 
most of whom are slaves. And last, though not least in 
rank, among the cities of our Israel, is Washington, the 
present seat of the general government. This capital we 
have ranged under the cities of Virginia, though it belongs 
to no individual state, partly because near one-half of the 
district of Columbia is within the bounds of Virginia, and 
partly because if it ever rise to any thing but a name, its 
growth must be ascribed to the zeal of the men of Vir¬ 
ginia. 

Manufactures and Commerce. It seems to 
have been a popular opinion in Virginia, as well as that of 
Mr. Jefferson, “ that it is better to carry provisions and ma¬ 
terials to manufacturers abroad, than to bring them to the 
provisions; for very few manufactures have been intro¬ 
duced into this state. Some articles of cotton, wool, flax, 
and hemp are made by the farmers for domestic use: 
brandy is also distilled from grain, apples and peaches. 
There are likewise several forges and furnaces that produce 
annually a considerable quantity of hollow wares, pig and 
bar iron. But the foreign commerce of Virginia is very 
extensive: the exports consist of tobacco, wheat, Indian 
corn, hemp, lumber, tar, pitch, turpentine, peltry, pork, 
flaxseed, &c. which in the year 1802 amounted to 4,660,361 


VIRGINIA. 


529 


dollai though tin s is hardly equal to their exports before 
the war, the relative prices of the articles considered. 
Their imports from the neighbouring states and from fo¬ 
reign markets, are at least of equal value, as they always 
remain largely in debt. 

Climate and Seasons. It seems to be the con¬ 
current opinion of all accurate observers, that a sensible 
change has taken place in ail the climates of the western 
hemisphere; “ snow, which was formerly frequent, deep, 
and of longer continuance, particularly on the eastward 
of the great range of mountains in this state, seldom lies 
more than one, two or three days; and rivers which sel¬ 
dom failed to freeze over in the course of the winter, 
scarcely ever do so now.”-In the same parallels of la¬ 

titude, as you advance from the coast towards the moun¬ 
tains, the air grows colder, and from thence westward the 

change is reversed, the air becoming warmer.-The 

changes from heat to cold are sudden and great, the mer¬ 
cury in Farenheit’s thermometer having been known to 
vary 45° in thirteen hours. By observations made at Wil- 
liamsburgh during the course of several years, the ex¬ 
tremes have been from 98° to 6° below 0: but these very 
distant extremes are rare occurrences, as the medial heat 

is about 60 w .-The fall of rain in one year is generally 

about 47 inches, and the exhalation commensurate. But 
on the whole, the climate of this state may be styled tem¬ 
perate, as the fig, pomegranate, artichoke, and European 
walnut are cultivated here, subject however to be killed by 
extreme frost. 

Soil and Agriculture. The soil of this state 
resembles that of Maryland in a great degree. The cham¬ 
paign is sandy, interspersed with bottoms of a rich produc¬ 
tive mould. As you approach the south mountain, and be¬ 
yond it to the westward, to a great extent, the soil is not 
unlike the western parts of Pennsylvania. Here it consists 
of clay, loam, and sand, variously intermixed, and produces 
all the most valuable grains. Near the mouths of the rivers, 
the banks are composed chiefly of a strong black mould, 
which, with proper cultivation, would yield the most luxu¬ 
riant crops. But on the whole, the state of agriculture in 
Virginia is many years behind that of Pennsylvania, owing 
to the multitude of slaves, and the almost universal use of 
the hoe, for many years, instead of the plough. 

y y 





530 


VIRGINIA. 


Mountains. Vast ranges of mountains pierce 
through the western part of this state, nearly in a N. E. 
and S. W. direction. The first that presents itself to 
notice is the blue ridge, the highest peak of which is about 
4000 feet from its base; next beyond this ridge is the 
North mountain, sometimes called the Endless mountain 
from its great length; and this is followed by the Alleghe¬ 
ny, that vast ridge which is called the back bone of the 
United States, and serves to divide the waters of the At¬ 
lantic from those of the Mississippi. The western branches 
of this great ridge are the Laurel and Cumberland moun¬ 
tains, which stretch to the western confines of the state. 

Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Productions. 
There are many medicinal plants, the natives of Virginia; 
as the snake-roots, the valerian, gentian, ginseng, senna, 
palma christi, mallows of several species, See. In forest 
trees there is no difference from the productions of Penn¬ 
sylvania worth noticing. Wheat, hemp, flax, cotton, and 
tobacco are staple commodities: rye, barley, oats, buck 
wheat and Indian corn are cultivated largely; and the orch¬ 
ards produce apples, peaches, pears, plums, &c.-A 

great number of excellent cattle are driven annually from 
the western counties of this state to the markets of Balti¬ 
more and Philadelphia, the climate and extensive ranges 
being propitious to their propagation and sustenance. Nor 
must we omit the breed of handsome horses, originally from 
England, which engage the peculiar attention of the Virgi¬ 
nia sportsmen.-The mines of Virginia are pretty nu¬ 

merous. One of the richest mineral productions is the coal 
mines; that near Richmond on James river, yielding many 
thousand chaldrons every year: it is used in all the smith’s 

shops in the sea port towns of the United States.-Lead has 

been discovered near the falls of the great Kenhawa, which 
on working has yielded 601b. of pure metal to 1001b. of wash¬ 
ed ore.-Specimens of copper have been exhibited.*-- 

Numerous iron mines have been worked to a great account: 
two in particular yield a metal fit for hollow wares that is 
superior to any other in the united territories—Mineral 
springs are numerous, those in Berkley county have long 
been noted for their medicinal virtues, and are become the 
fashionable resort of invalids. 

Ba\s and Rivers. I he Chesapeake bay is the 
common receptacle of all the rivers of Virginia that How 







NORTH CAROLINA. 


531 


eastward, extending from the mouth of Potomac to Cape 

Henry-The principal rivers are, the James river, with 

its several tributary streams; this river is formed of two 
principal branches which meet at Columbia; that running 
from the north west is called the Rivanna, and the other, 
from the west, Fluvanna. A ship of 40 guns may sail as 
high as James-Town, and vessels of 125 tons within a mile 

of Richmond, the seat of government;-York river, 

which at York-i own affords the best harbour in the state 
for jhips of the largest size, and holds four fathoms wa¬ 
ter 25 miles higher: at the confluence of its two branches 
the Pamunkey, and the Mattapony, it is reduced to two 

fathoms depth ;-Rappahannock, which affords four far 

thorns water to Hobb’s-hole, and two fathoms thence to 

Fredericksburgh ;--and Potomac, which is 7-1 miles wide 

at its mouth, and \\ at Alexandria, with three fathoms wa¬ 
ter, and thence 10 feet to the falls, about 13 miles above 
Alexandria. Most of these rivers, with several other small¬ 
er streams, are boatable to the very foot of the moun¬ 
tains. 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


Situation and Extent. North Carolina is situ¬ 
ated between 33° 50' and 36° 30' north latitude, and the 
longitude of 1° and 8° west from Philadelphia, or between 
76° and 84° west from London, containing a surface of 
50,000 square miles, equal to about 30,000,000 of acres in 
round numbers. It is bounded on the east by the Atlantic, 
on the north by Virginia, on the west by Tennessee, and 
on the south by South Carolina. 

Original Population. The savage tribes that 
were the original proprietors of North Carolina were pro¬ 
bably very numerous: but the most noted were the Cho- 
wannoes with their allies the Nottaways, Meherrins and 








532 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


Tutiloes, on the east; and the Corees, Tuscaroras and 
Cherokees, on the west. The first Europeans seated in 
this country were a colony of Germans from the banks of 
the Rhine, who were driven from their homes by the ex¬ 
terminating brigades of France. 

Memorable Events. In 1710. This colony was 
settled by the proprietors of South Carolina (of which it 
was then a part) with an allowance of 100 acres of land 
for every man, woman and child, free of quit rent for the 
first ten years. 

1712. It was almost exterminated by the Corees and 
Tuscaroras, but was rescued from total destruction by a 
re-inforcement sent seasonably from Charleston. The war 
carried into the Indian country; great slaughter among 
the Tuscaroras, and a remnant of the tribe obliged to re¬ 
move to the Ohio. About this time Cape Fear river (in 
N. C.) was a noted rendezvous of pirates. 

1717. The pirates extirpated from Cape Fear by the 
brave conduct of Captain Rhett in a government ship. 

172b. Seven out of eight of the proprietors of Carolina 
sold their rights to the crown: upon which Carolina was 
divided into North and South, and both erected into royal 
governments. 

1740. One-eighth of the proprietary ship which was re¬ 
tained by Lord Carteret, was laid off, and described as ex¬ 
tending from the latitude of 35° 34' to the southern bound 
of Virginia, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, 
comprehending great part of the state of N. C. 

1749. The inhabitants estimated at 45,000 souls. 

1751. The socieiy of United Brethren purchased of Lord 
Granville 100,000 acres of land, in Surry county, which 
they denominated Wachovia. It is now, 1804, a populous 
settlement, filled with villages, and well cultivated farms. 

Three delegates appointed to meet the first general 
Congress at Philadelphia, August 25, 1774. 

State Constitution framed December 18, 1776. Federal 
Constitution ratified November 21, 1789, by 193 to 75 
votes. 

Religion. Before the American revolution more 
than'one half of the inhabitants of North Carolina were of 
the church of England, this sect having founded and peo¬ 
pled most of the sea port towns. After the declaration of 
independence, these were obliged either to abjure their al- 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


533 


legiance to Great Britain, or to desert their homes; many 
oi them chose the latter, and all the clergy, one or two mi¬ 
nisters excepted. It is probable most of the livings were 
sequestered, lor there is hardly a single Episcopal congre¬ 
gation existing in the maritime towns. A numerous body 
of people in this part of the state live without any of the 
external acts of religion, except where the Presbyterians 
or methodists have collected the scattered sheep of the epis¬ 
copal fold-These sects are numerous throughout the 

state, the former possessing several of the western coun¬ 
ties almost entirely.-The settlement of Moravians, as 

we have already observed, is very populous, and distin¬ 
guishable for decorum and piety.-The Friends have 

likewise several congregations, seated in Guilford and the 
adjacent counties.-There are also some Baptists. 

Government and Laws. The constitution of 
North Carolina seems to have been cast in the same mould 
as those of Maryland and Virginia, with a small variation 
in some of the minute members.—The governor is chosen 
annually by the assembly , and may be re-elected three years 
out of se^en. Pie must be 30 years of age, and possess a 
freehold worth 1000/. currency. For misconduct in office 
he may be prosecuted, either by impeachment of the gene¬ 
ral assembly, or a presentment from the grand jury. He 
has a council of seven appointed annually by the assembly, 
with whom he is obliged to consult: with their concurrence 
he may lay embargoes, or prohibit the exportation of pro¬ 
visions for 30 days. He has also a power to grant pardons, 
except for offences prosecuted by the assembly, in which 
cases he may reprieve till their next session; during which 
interval he has also a power of appointing to any vacant 
office. In case of absence or disqualification, the speaker 
of the senate, or of the house of commons, executes the 

office of governor.-The legislature, styled the general 

assembly, is elected annually by the people, and consists 
of two branches, a senate of 60 members, and a commons 

house of double the number.-A senator must have a 

freehold of 300 acres of land; a member of the commons 
of 100 acres; and both must have been residenters one 
year, prior to their election.—The assembly possess all the 
powers of legislation; they appoint the governor, lieutenant- 
governor, council, judiciary and militia officers, the trea- 

y y 2 








534 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


surer and secretary of the state.—All freemen of full age r . 
who have paid taxes and resided one year, have a right to 
vote for the house of commons; but the electors of the se¬ 
nate must be freeholders.—The judiciary hold their com¬ 
missions during good behaviour, with “adequate salaries 
during their continuance in office.”—None but Protestants 

are admitted to office.-The state sends to the general 

congress 2 senators, and 12 representatives: senators are 
appointed by a joint ballot of both houses, representatives 
elected by a plurality of the people in districts. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. The 
state is divided into eight districts, containing 5 8 counties, 
and 478,000 souls (about one third slaves) according to the 
enumeration of 1800. The militia are estimated at 50,000 
men. 1 he population is about 14 persons to a square 
mile. White males 174,648, females 166,116. White 
persons under 16 years 175,139, above 162,625; of 45 
years and upwards 36,202. 

Manners, Customs and Language. In. the 
maritime counties of this commonwealth, the language and 
the general state of society have a strong resemblance with 
those of the ancient parts of Virginia. More than one- 
thiid part of the inhabitants are slaves, who perform all the 
labour of the farms and the families, while the whites have 
little or nothing to do. 1 he men waste their time in drink- 

gambling, horse racing or cockfighting, with an ex¬ 
ception of those who are engaged in commerce, the me¬ 
chanic employments, or some of the learned professions. 
These vices have increased greatly since the American 
revolution, and most in those settlements where the clero-y 
were obliged to desert their flocks; where religious wor¬ 
ship is almost suspended ; and where the Sundays are per¬ 
verted to noise and revelry-The western parts of the 

state have been planted by people of a different description, 
by a colony from the north of Ireland; by industrious Ger¬ 
mans; and by emigrants from Jersey and Pennsylvania; 
here slaves are less numerous, and the public duties of re¬ 
ligion are respected and observed. 

Seminaries of Learning. This state is not distin¬ 
guished by the fame of its literary institutions; yet educa¬ 
tion has not been wholly neglected. There is an act of 
assembly, and funds appropriated for the establishment of 
an university, and another act of recent date for the sup- 




NORTH CAROLINA. 


535 


port of public schools throughout the state. Academies 
are supported at Salisbury, Newbern and Hillsborough, 
under the care of some respectable tutors. 

Chief Cities and Towns. There is no consi¬ 
derable town in North Carolina: we shall mention the prin¬ 
cipal—New Bern, situated at the confluence of the Neuse 
and the Trent is the largest, and has 2467 inhabitants. 
The private houses are built of wood, the palace, the Epis¬ 
copal church, and the gaol, of bricks. The palace is a hand¬ 
some edifice, and w 7 as the residence of the governors be¬ 
fore the revolution.-Wilmington is built on a branch of 

Cape Fear river, about 30 miles from the ocean, and was 
almost destroyed by a conflagration in the year 1786: in¬ 
habitants, 1689.—Fayette, on the same stream, about 100 

miles above Wilmington, contains 165 6 inhabitants_ 

Edenton, on Albemarle sound, has 1322 inhabitants.—— 
And Raleigh, an inland town, in Wake county, which is 
noticed only because the state has chosen it for the seat of 
government. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The state is 
not deficient in iron mines, from which they manufacture 
bar iron and hollow ware for domestic use. Every farmer 
has a field of cotton, which he cleans, spins and weaves for 
the consumption of his family.—Great part of the exports of 
this state are carried through Virginia and South Carolina: 
they consist chiefly of tar, pitch, turpentine, rosin, Indian 
corn, boards, scantling, shingles, tobacco, furs, pork, bees 
wax, See. amounting in the year 1802, to 650,000 dollars.— 
Almost the whole shore of North Carolina is faced with a 
dangerous sand bank, affording only a few narrow inlets to 
its principal sea port towns, and these are navigable only 
by small vessels. 

Climate and Seasons. The low sandy ground 
which extends neat ly 100 miles from the sea shore, and the 
numerous undrained marshes in the lower part of this state, 
together with extreme heat and abundant exhalations, pro¬ 
duce annually an exuberant crop of bilious and intermittent 
fevers; this is indicated by the sallow complexion of the 
common people. Not more than one person to ten accord¬ 
ing to the last enumeration had reached the age of 45; 
whereas in the New-Eng land states the proportion of this 
age is generally about 15 to 100. This then is not the 





536 


NORTH CAROLINA. 


habitation for those who wish to rival old Parr or Jenkins 
in health and longevity.—But there is not a finer climate 
within the extensive limits of the United States than the 
western counties of North Carolina; here the country is 
intersected by a range of mountains, and diversified by 
hill and dale; nor is the cold intense enough to oblige the 
farmer to fold his cattle in winter. 

Soil and Agriculture. Great part of the sea 
coast of North Carolina, as we have observed, is covered 
with barren forests, with here and there a glade of rich 
land. The banks of the rivers are more uniformly fertile, 
and are generally well cultivated. But the higher lands 
on the east side of the mountains, and a very extensive 
tract on the west, are the pride of this state, abounding 
with a strong and productive soil. In these districts, 
wheat, rye, barley, oats, and fiax, repay the farmer for 

his labour by plentiful crops-Cotton, Indian corn and 

pulse are cultivated every where through the state, being 
consumed principally in the aliment and cloathing of its 
inhabitants, and may be termed the staple articles of North 
Carolina. 

Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Productions. 
The towering pitch-pine is the most conspicuous tree in the 
plains of North Carolina, though it produces also the red and 
the white oak, both well adapted for staves, and the swamps 
abound with the funereal cypress and the bay.—The native 
timber of the western counties is the walnut, oak, locust, 
elm, linn, wild cherry, and plum trees: grapes, strawber¬ 
ries, raspberries, as well as some medicinal plants, such as 

ginseng, snakeroot, See. are found in almost every district._ 

Among the domestic animals most deserving of notice, are 
the numerous herds of cattle, that are bred and live through 
the year in these extensive forests, whence they are col¬ 
lected and sold in large numbers to the northern drovers._ 

The principal mineral wealth of this state are its iron mines, 
unless we include the medicinal springs of Warren, Rock¬ 
ingham, and some other places that are famed for their 
healing virtues, and the resort of the invalid. 

Mountains. The principal ridge that runs through 
N. Carolina, is called the Apalachian mountain, a name 
derived from the Apalaches, a nation once very numerous, 
and appears to be only anotherlocalname for the Allegheny 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 


537 


mountains, being a portion of the same lofty ridge, that 
extends from the Mississippi to the St. Lawrence. 

Swamps. But we must not omit the swamps of 
this state; of which there are two very remarkable: one 
called the Green Swamp, near the southern line, and the 
other, with emphatic propriety, called the Great Dismal , 
which covers more than 500 square miles, embosoms se¬ 
veral lakes, and communicates with Alligator river and 
Albemarle sound. 

Rivers and Sounds* The sounds are .arms of the 
sea formed by the continent and a chain of sand banks, 
stretched in front of this state almost its whole length. 
The most noted are those of Albemarle and Pamtico : 
the first extends 60 miles from the ocean into the land, 
with a medial breadth of 10 miles, and receives the waters 
of the Roanoke and Meherrin rivers: the other stretches 
along the shore one hundred miles, with a various breadth, 
from 10 to 30 miles, and receives the Pamtico and Neuse 
rivers.—The only stream deserving notice besides these 
is Cape Fear river. This is the most navigable water in 
the state of North Carolina, and was known at an early 
date as the rendezvous of pirates. The two branches of 
which it is formed, after running through a fertile country, 
unite a little above Wilmington, thirty miles from Cape 
Fear. So far it is navigable by pretty large vessels, and 
on the north-west branch it is boatable 90 miles, to the 
town of Fayetteville. 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Situation and Extent. South Carolina is situated 
between 32° and 35° N. latitude, and the longitude of 4° 
and 9° W. of Philadelphia, or 78° and 83° W. of London, 
and contains about 20,000 square miles, equal to about 
13,000,000 of acres. Its bounds are, the Atlantic ocean, 
on the east; North Carolina, on the north; and the river 




SOUTH CAROLINA. 


5 o O 
O O 

Savannah, which separates it from Georgia and Tennes¬ 
see, on the west and south west. 

Original Population. The most noted among 
the Indian tribes who were the original proprietors of this 
country, were the Stonoes and Westoes, the Sarannas, 
the Apalaches, Congarees, Esaws and Yamassees, on the 
east and in the centre, who are now either extinct or 
mingled with other tribes; and the Catawbas, Creeks and 
Cherokees, on the west, who still retain their name, and 
a local habitation on the frontiers of the state. The an¬ 
cestors of the present inhabitants were a mixture of many 
European nations, but the first adventurers came from 
Great Britain. Under the auspices and at the expense of 
that government was the colony founded. 

Memorable Events. 1G62. Patent granted by 
king Charles II. to Lord Clarendon and seven other noble¬ 
men for the province of Carolina, extending from 29° to 
o6° o] N. lat. and from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. 

1669. The first colony under Gov. Sayle, seated them¬ 
selves at the place now called Charleston. The first em¬ 
barkation cost the proprietors 12,000/. sterling. 

1672. A constitution framed by the celebrated John 
Lock. The Spaniards attempt to destroy the colony, but 
finding it in a state of defence retreat to St. Augustine 
without doing any thing. 

1674. A price given for Indian prisoners, who are 
sold as slaves to the West-India planters. 

1682. The government endeavours to restrain the 
iniquitous practice, and to regulate the trade with the na¬ 
tives, but are opposed by some of the leading nlanters. 
The practice continues. ° 1 

1690. The people dissatisfied with the proprietors, but 
most with paying quit rents. They banish their governor, 
and raise one of their own faction to the office. About 
this time rice was accidentally introduced by a brigantine 
from Madagascar; and to cultivate it slaves were found 
necessary. 

1696. Episcopal clergy established in Charleston, with 
a house, glebe, and perpetual salary. 

1699. A hurricane, which raised the sea in Charles¬ 
ton as high as the second story of their houses. 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


539 


1702. Paper currency first emitted by law. Culture of 
cotton introduced. 

1706. Dissenters petition the house of Lords for relief 
from the oppressions of the Episcopal church. Charleston 
attacked by a combined army of French and Spaniards, 
who are repulsed by militia. 

1712. A public bank established, and bills issued to the 
amount of 45,000/. by which the price of produce was 
raised 150 per cent, in twelve months. 

1714. A war with the Yamassees instigated by the 
Spaniards. Gov. Craven offers a reward of 5/. for every 
Spanish prisoner, to prevent his being butchered by the 
Indians. 

1720. In consequence of a series of disorders, the char¬ 
ter of the proprietors declared to be forfeited, and the co¬ 
lony erected into a royal government. Whites 14,000, 
Negroes and Indians 20,000. 

1728. Summer remarkably dry and hot, followed in the 
fall by a hurricane, which levelled thousands of trees, and 
drove 23 ships ashore. 

1737. The Spaniards incite the slaves to run away, give 
them arms, and march them to Charleston to cut the throats 
of their heretical masters. A general insurrection among 
the slaves. 

1740. An expedition against Florida, which proved 
abortive. A fire destroys 300 houses at Charleston. Par¬ 
liament grants 20,000/. to the sufferers. 

1742. The slaves out-number their masters 3 to 1. The 
Carolinians apply to the crown for 3 independent compa¬ 
nies to defend them against their own slaves. 

1745. Indigo found to be a native plant, and first culti¬ 
vated : a bounty of 6c/. per lb. granted by parliament. 

1752. Summer extremely hot: in the fall a hurricane 
from N. E. water rose 10 feet above high water mark; 
city overflowed and filled with the wrecks of ships, and 
houses. 

1754. Imports 200,000/. sterling. Exports 104,682 bbls. 
of rice; of indigo 216,924 lbs. Total value 242,500/. ster- 
ling. 

1756. War with the Cherokees, which was continued 
till 1761. 


540 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


\ 76 \. A whirlwind in May that laid the channel of Ash¬ 
ley river bare; swept the loftiest trees before it like chaff; 
sunk five vessels that were at anchor in the road, and dis¬ 
masted eleven others. 

1771. Charleston exported produce to the amount of 
756,000/. sterling. 

Religion. Among the early settlers of Carolina, 
the Presbyterians were the most numerous, and they still 
hold their full proportion of the population. The Episcopal 
Church, which was long the established religion of the colo¬ 
ny, may be reckoned next in number. There are many 
congregations of Baptists and Methodists, and but very 
few of any other religious society., All religions equally 
participate in civil rights and privileges, and each elects 
and maintains its own teachers only. 

Government and Laws. The legislative power of 
the state is vested in a general assembly, consisting of two 
branches, a senate and house of representatives, both elect¬ 
ed by the people: the former contains 37 members, and 
are chosen for four years, with a biennial rotation of one 
half: the latter, 124 members, and are elected for two 
years, which is a distinguishing feature in the constitution 
of this state. The qualifications of a senator are, the age 
of oO years, a residence in the state five years prior to 
his election, a freehold worth 300/. if he inhabit the dis¬ 
trict, and 1000/. if he reside out of it. The qualifica¬ 
tions of a representative, full age, a residence of three 
years, 500 acres of land, and 10 slaves, or any freehold 
valued at 150/. if he reside in the district, if he reside else- 
white in the state, a freehold worth 500/.———The repre¬ 
sentatives originate money bills, and possess the power of 
impeaching;—the senate try impeachments;—to impeach, 
or convict, the concurrence of two-thirds of the members is 
required. In other respects the powers of both houses are 
equal.—Conjointly they elect the governor, lieutenant-go¬ 
vernor and council. 1 hey appoint judges, commissioners 
of the treasury, secretary of state, and surveyor-general 
and possess all the privileges that are common to a legis¬ 
lative assembly.-The executive authority is lodged in 

a governor, or lieutenant-governor, with a council of nine 

members ol whom the lieutenant-governor is one.'_They 

are elected for two years, and may be rechosen after an in- 




541 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 

terval of four.—The qualifications requisite in a governor as 
well as lieutenant-governor are, the age of 30 years, a resi¬ 
dence in the state of ten years, and an estate worth 1500/. 
sterling.—He is commander in chief of the militia when not 
called into the service of the United States: he may remit 
fines and forfeitures, except when restricted by a special law: 
grant reprieves or pardons, except in cases of impeachment; 
and embargo provisions for thirty days—-Agreeably to the 
constitution the judges hold their commissions during good 
behaviour, and their salaries, as well as that of governor, are 
unalterable during their terms of office.—Every free white 
man has a right to vote at elections, who is of full age, has 
resided two years in the state, and six months in the district, 

and has paid a tax there to the amount of three shillings._ 

By a particular law of this state, the evidence of a slave 
cannot be taken against a white man, and if a master kill 
a slave, he is punishable only by a pecuniary mulct, or an 

imprisonment of one year.--Representation in general 

Congress, two senators, and eight representatives.' Sena¬ 
tors appointed by a joint ballot of both houses; represen¬ 
tatives elected in districts by plurality of the people. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. The lat¬ 
est division of this state has been into districts, of which 
there are 23 in number; and these are subdivided into 
counties and parishes. The number of inhabitants in 1800 
was 345,591 (one-third slaves) which gives about 17 per¬ 
sons to a square mile. Increase in 10 years 105,5 18, 
equal to a duplication in 22J years. White males 100,916. 
Females 95,339. White persons under 16 years 184,088; 
above 92,167; of 45 years and upwards 19,681. The mi¬ 
litia may be estimated about 50,000 men. 

Manners and Customs. Here as well as in every 
other country where it has prevailed largely, slavery has 
produced its peculiar train of vices, pride, indolence and 
cruelly. The Carolinians, those I mean in the maritime 
parts, are nevertheless remarkable for their polished and 
agreeable manners, and their unaffected hospitality to 
strangers. Among the higher classes the pleasures of 
society are cultivated eagerly, but gaming, that inlet of 
numerous crimes, is generally discouraged. Hunting and 
horse racing are favourite sports among men of fortune. 
Youth are introduced early into company, and many of 
them discover a happy and natural quickness of appre- 

z z 



542 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


hension, but want that perseverance and steadiness that 
are requisite in arduous pursuits. The ladies, particularly 
those of Charleston, have been distinguished for their 
elegant accomplishments, as well as lor their easy, engag¬ 
ing- manners. 

Seminaries of Learning. Before the American 
war there was a society of the most respectable citizens of 
Charleston incorporated for the promotion of literature. 
They had made a considerable collection of books, &c. 
for the use of the company, and were forming a fund for 
the erection of a college, but the war put a stop to the de¬ 
sign. This seminary was intended to remove the neces¬ 
sity of sending youth to Europe to complete their educa¬ 
tion, which had long been the common practice in wealthy 
families, and is the case still in a considerable degree. 
However there are at present several colleges and acade¬ 
mies in this state, though none of very extensive fame. 
The colleges most known are those of Charleston, Winn- 
borough, Cambridge, and Beaufort, and in these as well 
as several other places there are academies, and other pri- 
Aate schools. 1 he college of South Carolina, for which 
50,000 dollars has been allotted to erect the necessary build¬ 
ings, at the seat of government, together with 6000 dol- 
L? s pei annum for the support of tutors, is a recent in¬ 
stitution, hardly completed. 

Revenues and Expences. The annual income of 
this wealthy and flourishing state must be considerable: 
but the manner in which taxes are assessed and collected, 
renders it difficult to ascertain the sum total. It is derived 
principally from a tax on lands and negroes, and a duty 
on certain goods imported. That on lands, is regulated 
by their current value, which is estimated from six pounds 
to one shilling per acre; and on this valuation the tax ge¬ 
nerally imposed, is one per centum.—The annual expen¬ 
diture is about 70,000 dollars, in round numbers, which is 
about 35 cents per head on the free inhabitants. 

q f , C “ IEF , ClTIES andTowns . The principal town in 
South Carolina, and which till lately was the seat of go¬ 
vernment, is Charleston, situated at the confluence°of 
Ashley and Cooper rivers, about six miles above Sullivan’s 
island. It is built with great regularity. The streets ly¬ 
ing east and west run in a straight line from river to river 
and are furnished with subterranean drains, for removing 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


543 


nuisances, he. These are intersected by others, nearly 
at right angles, which divide the town into a number of 
handsome squares.— The houses are chiefly built of bricks, 
and many of them very elegant—The public edifices are 
an exchange, a state-house, a bank, an armory, and a 
public alms-house, with ten or a dozen places of religious 
worship.— The tide rises from six to ten feet perpendicu¬ 
lar, at the wharves, and vessels drawing 17 feet water may 
pass the bar.—At the time of last enumeration the inhabit¬ 
ants were 18,824, nearly one half slaves.—There are two 
banks ol discount and deposit in the city, besides a branch 

of that of the United States.-The other principal towns 

are George-Town, which contains about 2000 inhabitants; 
it is a sea port, and has about 10 or 12 feet water; and 

Beaufort or Port-Royal island an inconsiderable place.- 

1 he seat of government is Columbia, a town of recent date, 
distant from Charleston about 100 miles, and situated on 
the river Congaree, just below the junction of its two 
branches, the Broad river with the Saluda. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The principal 
manufacture is that of indigo: but in the middle and the up¬ 
per country the planters and farmers manufacture a consi¬ 
derable part of their coarse cotton cloths, and some of the 
woollen. On the sea board the inhabitants are clothed prin¬ 
cipally with foreign merchandise.—The foreign trade of this 
state is very considerable, as it abounds in articles which 
meet a ready sale in Europe, and manufactures but little for 
its own consumption.—The exports consist chiefly of rice, 
indigo, tobacco, furs,peltry,tar,pitch, turpentine, rosin, lum¬ 
ber, staves, Indian corn,soal leather, reeds and Carolina pink- 
root.—'Pile articles imported are flour, bread, cheese, salted 
fish, potatoes, onions, oats, porter, beer, and cyder, from the 
northern states; and from foreign markets, rum, sugar, 
coffee, cocoa, tea, brandy, wine, gin, and a great variety 
of package goods from Great Britain and other nations. 
The balance of trade is generally in favour of the state. 

Amount of exports in 1771, was 756,000/. sterling, equal 
to ----- - 3,360,000 dollars, 

in 1791 - - 2,693,267 

in 1802 - - 10,690,000 

Vessels that sailed from Charleston 1787, were 947, 
measuring 62,118 tons.—In 1801, there were 1243 plea¬ 
sure carriages in the state that paid duty. 



544 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 


Climate and Seasons. The climate of the low 
country of South Carolina can hardly be styled temperate, 
although it is near the middle of the temperate zone. In 
summer, the air is warm in the extreme, sultry and suffo¬ 
cating; in winter dry and sometimes piercing cold, though 
snow is very rare. The effluvia from a great mass of stag¬ 
nant water in all seasons of the year, renders the air near 


the sea humid and unelastic, and of course unpropitious to 
health. The fail is accounted the most unhealthy part of 
the year in the flooded rice grounds, therefore the wealthy 
planters mostly retire to the city in that season. Thunder 
storms are frequent from April to October, and often very 
tremendous. At Charleston, five houses, two churches, 
and live ships were struck by lightning on the same day. 
The greatest variation observed by Fahrenheit’s thermo¬ 
meter has been from 101° to 10° in the shade. 


The mean diurnal heat 64° in Spring, 79° Summer, 72° Autumn, 52* Winter. 
Nocturnal £6 75 68 45 


The annual fall of water (taking the mean of six years) is 
nearly 471 inches: the greatest fall in 12 hours was 9.26 
inches. Ihe orange, olive and peach trees sometimes 
blossom in the beginning of February, generally about the 
middle. As to the upper country, especially beyond the first 
ridge of mountains, it is freer from the extremes of heat 
and cold, and being irrigated with streams of wholesome 
watci, is as healthiul a region as any part of the U. States. 

Soil and Agriculture. On the plains of South Ca¬ 
rolina, the soil is generally sandy, interspersed with marshes, 
and giound that is occasionally flooded. As you advance 
into the country, you find it mixed with loam and clay, till 
you reach the mountains, where it is agreeably diversified 

with hill and dale, ancl many extensive fertile tracts._The 

staple produce of the maritime country are cotton, rice ancl 
indigo, with many of the tropical fruits, such as oranges, 
lemons, tigs, olives, peaches, and an exuberance of the rich¬ 
est melons.— The interior tracts are more devoted to grain 
ot various kinds, where they are produced in great abun¬ 
dance. Cattle are never housed in winter, and constitute 
a considerable item in the wealth of the country. 

Animal and Vegetable Productions. Besides 
the vegetable productions already noticed as the fruits of 
cultivation, the forests are distinguishable for pines of su¬ 
perior height and quality, oak, hickory, cypress, and lau- 


GEORGIA. 


54 5 


l’el, the palmtree, beech, mulberry, dog: and cherry trees: 
and while luxuriant vines climb to the loftiest boughs, the 
humbler bushes and shrubs fill up the underground.—All 
domestic cattle are found here in sufficient plenty—Deer 
and buffaloes which formerly grazed in numerous droves 
through the extensive savannas of S. Carolina are now ex¬ 
tremely rare. The alligator, a species of the crocodile, is 
found in the rivers and ponds. The bear, beaver, racoon 
and opossum, the leopard, panther, wolf, fox, wild cat, 
rabbit and squirrel, are indigenous quadrupeds. The coun¬ 
try still abounds with the most venomous serpents, as the 
rattle-snake, viper, and horn-snake, besides many other 
species that are less poisonous. 

Mountains. There are no mountains in this state 
within 200 miles of the sea, the intermediate space being 
an extensive plain; but the principal, and much the most 
elevated, lies still farther to the westward, being a part of 
the Allegheny or Apalachian mountain, which forms the 
boundary of the state in this quarter; separating the Cum¬ 
berland and Tennessee rivers, and their numerous branches, 
from the waters that flow into the Atlantic ocean. 

Rivers and Islands. The principal rivers are the 
Savanna which runs the whole depth of the state, dividing 
it from Georgia; the Edisto; the Santee; and the Peedee; 
which retain their ancient Indian appellations. Through the 
mountainous country these streams flow' with a rapid cur- 
ernt, while in the plains they glide smoothly along till they 
readh the ocean. In none does the tide rise above twenty- 
five miles from their outlets, though most of them are na¬ 
vigable by boats more than double that distance-The 

coast of this state is lined with numerous small islands; 
many of which are cultivated with great advantage, pro¬ 
ducing the finest and most exuberant crops of cotton. 


GEORGIA. 

Situation and Extent. This state is situated be¬ 
tween 31° and 35° of North latitude, a id the longitude of 
5° and 10^ Q W. from Philadelphia, or 80 y and 85i° W. 





546 


GEORGIA. 


from London. It is bounded on the east and north, by the 
Atlantic and South Carolina; on the west, by the river 
Catahouchee; on the south, by East Florida, and contains 
about 50,000 square miles, equal to 32 millions of acres. 

Original Population. The most memorable In¬ 
dian tribes among the aborigines of Georgia are the Chick- 
esaws, Chactaws, Creeks, Cherokees, Natches and Alii- 
Famous. A part of these retain a small portion of their 
ancient possessions which lie between the territories of 
the United States and the river Mississippi; but all of them 
are much diminished, and some reduced to a handful of 

men capable of bearing arms.-This colony was planted 

by a society of English gentlemen, with a view not only of 
extending the British empire in America, and securing Ca¬ 
rolina from the inroads of their Spanish neighbours, but 
to relieve the industrious poor of the old world, and to ex¬ 
tend to the new, the inestimable benefits of religion and 
civilization. i he province of Georgia of course received 
more liberal aid from the parent state than any other co¬ 
lony in the western hemisphere. 

Memorable Events. 1732. A patent granted 
to a corporation of 21 persons, for settling a new colony 
between Carolina and the Spanish dominions in Florida. 
1° the same year general Ogelthorpe embarks with 117 
fehow passengers, passage being paid and necessaries fur¬ 
nished to a large amount; they land atthe place afterwards 
called Savanna; purchase a tract of land of the Creek In¬ 
dians; and lay the foundation of their first settlement in an 
act of justice. 

1 ( 34. Avkiitional aid of 36,000/. sterling granted by 
pas /lament; it>0 Highlanders settled at New Inverness on 
the Alatamaha; followed, in the same year, by 170 Ger¬ 
mans who were seated in another part of the province. 

17 35. The English parliament granted 10,000/. ster- 
hng to eiv.ot loitifications. Georgia fortified by general 
Ogelthorpe. 

17o(. Small progress made in cultivation, which the 
Geoi gums zittiibute to the want of slaves to work for them ; 
tnough it was expressly stipulated in the original contract 
tnat no slaves should be introduced into the colony. Ogel- 
thorpe’s regiment sent from England to defend the colony. 



GEORGIA. 


547 


The Spaniards corrupt the soldiers, and cause them to mu¬ 
tiny against their general. 

1740. Whitefield’s orphan house founded, for the edu¬ 
cation of poor children. 

1742. Georgia invaded by the Spaniards, the people of 
Carolina refuse to assist their neighbours; defended by 
Oglethorpe’s regiment, with the assistance of the militia, 
and the Spaniards repulsed. 

1747. A clergyman (named Bosomworth) who had 
marrieu a woman of the Creek nation, pretended to govern 
the country in her right, and to dispossess the English 
settlers. 

1752. The trustees surrender their charter to the crown. 

1763. The colony began to flourish. 

1773. Exports amounted to 121,677/. sterling. 

1788. January 2d, The federal constitution ratified una¬ 
nimously. 

1798. May 30th, State constitution revised and amended. 

Religion. i hough the propagation of religion 
was a leading motive with the generous founders of this co¬ 
lony, and it partook largely, during its infancy, of the zeal¬ 
ous labours of George VVhitefield and his disciples, this im¬ 
portant interest is at a low ebb, at least in the old settle¬ 
ments. The pursuits of trade, agriculture, politics and 
land speculations engross the principal attention: there are 
nevertheless some serious people in the western country, of 
the Baptist, Presbyterian and Methodist societies; and in 
Savannah, Augusta, and a few other towns, there are edi¬ 
fices for public worship, supported by several religious so¬ 
cieties, where the forms, at least, of religion, are preserved. 
By the constitution of the state, all Christian sects partake 
equally in the rights and privileges of citizens. 

Government and Laws. The government of this, 
like that of most of the other states, consists of three de¬ 
partments, executive, legislative, and judiciary. But in all 
the states that are on the south of the Susquehanna, this 
division of authority is little more than a shadow, for most 
of the essential powersare confided to the legislative branch: 
it appoints, and can remove the other two, ad libitum, by 
impeachments; and we have only to look to some recent 
examples to know where these originate, and how they are 
managed.-Agreeably to the constitution as revised and 



GEORGIA. 


54 S 

amended May 1798, the governor is elected by the general 
assembly biennially, and is re-eligible ; the age of 30 years, 
a residence of 6 years in the state, and 12 in the United 
States, a freehold of 500 acres, or other property worth 

4000 dollars, being the qualifications required--He has 

a negative on laws, unless two-thirds of both houses concur 
to enact; he may grant pardons, except in cases of im¬ 
peachment, treason, or murder, in which he may respite 
execution till next session of assembly; and he may ap¬ 
point to vacant offices, ad interim.-There is no lieute¬ 
nant-governor or council.-The general assembly is com¬ 

posed of two chambers, a senate consisting of 23 members, 
and representatives of 51, who are elected by the people 

annually.-To qualify a candidate for the senate, he must 

be 25 years of age, possess a freehold worth 500 dollars, 
or other estate worth one thousand, and have resided in 
the state three years, and in the United States nine years: 
for a representative, the age of 21 years, a residence of 
three years in the state, and seven in the United States, 
and a freehold of 250 acres, or other estate worth 500 dol¬ 
lars.-Conjointly they appoint governor, judges, secre¬ 

tary, treasurer, and surveyor-general, (all of them except 
the judges, for two years) attorney and solicitor general, 
for three years, and all the general officers of the militia.— 
The judges of the supreme court are appointed for three 
years, and inferior judges during good behaviour.—Justices 
of peace are nominated by the inferior courts.—The courts 
of law are, a superior court, which has exclusive jurisdic¬ 
tion in all criminal cases, and disputes about the titles of 
land. The county courts decide on inferior controversies. 
A single judge sits in the superior court to determine the 
most important causes, and often exercises the power of 

a chancellor.-All white males, 21 years of age, who 

have resided six months in the state, and paid taxes there¬ 
in, have the right of voting at elections, which is perform¬ 
ed viva voce .-The state sends two senators and four 

representatives to congress. Senators are appointed by a 
joint ballot of the two branches: representatives by a plu¬ 
rality of the people at large. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. Georgia 
was formerly divided into parishes; it is now parcelled in*o 
counties, of which the number was twenty-four at the period 
of the last enumeration, and the total of inhabitants 1 62,686 








GEORGIA. 


549 


(about 31 to a square mile) of whom more than one-third 
were slaves; white males 53,968, females 52,187; white 
persons under 16 years to those above, as 54 to 51: of 45 
years and upwards as 8| to 100. Increase in ten years 
was 80,138, which is very near a duplication in the same 

time, owing to extraordinary emigrations.-In a recent 

report returned to congress, the militia was estimated at 
16,154 men. 

Manners, Customs and Languages. Georgia 
was peopled from its infancy by men of several nations and 
languages, though the main and governing part was Eng¬ 
lish. Those of the same nation who settled together in 
the same parish or county, still retain a few distinct shades 
of original character; but a gradual assimilation is taking 
place. From the influence of climate, and a resemblance in 
their domestic economy, with those of the other southern 
states already described, we cannot suppose that there is 
any great diversity in the general mass. The wealthy 
planters, who own numerous families of slaves, study ease 
and luxury, and dissipate a part of their affluence in acts of 
hospitality, and the pleasures of society. Cards, horse-rac¬ 
ing, cock-fighting, and among the more active, the chace 
for which Georgia is well adapted, are favourite amuse¬ 
ments. Rut land speculations, though not peculiar to this 
state, have been pursued with uncommon avidity, which 
has forced the government to some very extraordinary 
measures in order to limit their extension. 

Seminaries of Learning. As it is but about 40 
years since Georgia rose above the first great difficulties of 
planting a wilderness, it cannot be justly expected that edu¬ 
cation has long had a share of its attention; but schools have 
latterly become the subject of legislative provision. A va¬ 
luable fund in lands has been appropriated to support one 
university in the state, as well as an academy in every coun¬ 
ty where the population would admit ol it; and that this ex¬ 
tensive plan might be executed with energy, the legislature 
has instituted a board of literary men, to superintend and 
animate the whole. So that there is a prospect Georgia 
will in a few years rival some of the older states in culti¬ 
vating the variegated fields of science. 

Chief Cities and Towns. There are not many 
towns in Georgia, that deserve to be noticed in a geogra¬ 
phical epitome. The principal is Savanna, situated near 



550 


GEORGIA. 


the mouth of the river Savanna, formerly the seat of go* 
vernment, and still the principal seat of its foreign com¬ 
merce; it is built with some regularity, contains a court¬ 
house, and four or five places of religious worship, and in 
the year 1800 enumerated 5 146 inhabitants, nearly one-half 

slaves.-Augusta stands about a hundred miles higher up 

the river, and has 22 15 inhabitants, above 10C0 of whom 

are slaves.-Sunbury, Brunswick and Frederica, are sea 

port towns, with good harbours, but possess inconsiderable 

foreign trade.-And Louisville, named in honour of the 

king of France, is situated on the river Ogechee, about 70 
miles from the sea, in the centre of a fertile country, and 
is honoured as the seat of government. 

Manufactures and Commerce. In a state 
where land is cheap, where so much remains to be culti¬ 
vated, and when there is a ready market for all its princi¬ 
pal productions, there cannot be many considerable manu¬ 
factures.— 1 he principal are indigo, and the powder of sago; 
but the commerce bears a full proportion with the number 
of inhabitants, and increases rapidly. The exports which 
in 1763, were but 27,021/. sterling, had increased in 1773 
to 121,677/. equal to 540,787 dollars, and in 1802 had swel¬ 
led to 1,854,951 dollars. These exports consist of cotton, 
rice, indigo, tobacco, peltry, furs, pitch, tar, turpentine, In¬ 
dian corn, and various other articles. In return for these 
they receive the wines and manufactures of Europe, as 
well as the productions of the East and West Indies. 

Climate and Seasons. i he climate and seasons 
of Georgia, differ but little from those of South Carolina. 
Being a few degrees nearer the equator, the summers are 
longer, and more fit to bring the tropical fruits to maturity. 
By the observations of Governor Ellis, the mercury stood 
at 102° in the shade, on the 7th of July; it had risen twice 
to the sameheight; several times to 100° ; and formanydays 
together it stood at 98°, settling at 89° in the night. The 
inhabitants of Savanna, as the same author supposed, breathe 
as hot an air as any people on earth; but the town, being 
situated on a sand hill, is better ventilated, and of course, 

more healthy than the low ground that surrounds it._The 

variations in winter have sometimes been very remarkable. 
Ihe mercury has been observed to be as high as 86° on 
the 10th of December, and has fallen as low as 38° on the 
11th; it ranges generally from 76° to 90 p in summer, and 




KENTUCKY. 


551 


from 40° to 60° in winter. Such sudden changes in the 
weather, joined to the brackish quality of the water, and 
the general humidity of the air, cannot fail to render the 
plains of Georgia unhealthy; but the western country, 
being a much higher region, broken with mountains, and 
irrigated with streams of wholesome water, is equal to any 
portion of the United States. 

Soil, Agriculture, Animal and Vegetable Pro¬ 
ductions. In these articles Georgia differs so little from 
South Carolina, that to describe them would he an unpleas¬ 
ant repetition. 

Mountains, Rivers and Islands. The only con¬ 
spicuous ridge that pervades this state, is the southern ex¬ 
tremity of the Apalachian or Allegheny mountain, which 
with its various ramifications extends from the St. Law¬ 
rence to the Mississippi-Beginning in the north, the 

first river that presents itself to notice, is the Savanna, 
which divides this state from South Carolina. Its princi¬ 
pal branches rise in the ridge above noticed, and after run¬ 
ning in a S. E. direction through the state, discharges into 

the ocean a few miles below the metropolis.-To the 

south ward flows the Ogechee, a more inconsiderable 
stream;—and next, the Alatamaha, a long and noble ri¬ 
ver, but obstructed at its outlet by sand banks, which di¬ 
vide it into several branches.-Lastly, bt. Mary’s river, 

which bounds the territories of the United States in this 
quarter, from the colonies of Spain, and joins the ocean 
at Amelia sound.—-The coast of this state is lined with se¬ 
veral small islands, which contain some of its richest lands, 
^producing indigo, Indian corn, sweet potatoes, as well as 
cotton of the finest quality; and being esteemed more 
healthy than the continent, afford agreeable retreats to 
many of the inhabitants in the sickly months. 


KENTUCKY. 


Situation and Extent. This state which was 
formerly a part of Virginia, and ceded to congress in 1792, 
is situated between 36}° and 39-* ° N. latitude, and between 







552 


KENTUCKY. 


8° and 15° W. longitude from Philadelphia, or from 83° to 
90° W. from the meridian of London. It contains 40,000 
square miles, and is bounded on the E. by Sandy river, 
and aline running due south from its head waters to North 
Carolina; on the N. by the river Ohio; on the W. by the 
Ohio and Cumberland rivers; and on the S. by an imagi¬ 
nary line in the middle of the 36° of N. latitude, dividing 
it from the state of Tennessee. 

Original Population. From the earliest ac¬ 
counts we have of this country, it was long the subject of 
dispute, as well as the scene of bloody conflicts between 
several Indian tribes, and was therefore called by them the 
“ dark and bloody grounds.” That part which lies north 
of the river Kentucky was probably claimed by the Five 
Nations, and that on the south by the Cherokees. 

Memorable Events. 1754. Kentucky visited 
by James M‘ Bride, who explored part of the country, and 
at the mouth of Kentucky river, marked a tree with the 
initials of his name. 

1769. Explored farther by Colonel Boone of North Ca¬ 
rolina, in company with other persons. All except Boone, 
either perished or were dispersed, he remaining in the 
country alone till the year 1771, when he returned to Ca¬ 
rolina. 

1773. First permanent settlement made by Boone and 
five or six other families from Powell’s Valley in North 
Carolina. This gave umbrage to the Indians, as an in¬ 
fraction of the treaty of 1768, made between them and 
the English, by which this ground had been particularly 
reserved for hunting. 

1775. About this time Colonel Donaldson, in behalf of 
the province of Virginia, purchased of the Five Nations for 
a specific sum in specie, all that part of Kentucky which 
lies between the great Kanhaway and Kentucky rivers. 

In the same year Colonel Henderson (of North Carolina) 
purchased ol the Cherokees, the other moiety of Kentucky, 
that lies on the south of Kentucky river, which lie after¬ 
wards conveyed to the province (or the state) of Virginia. 

1792. I he inhabitants formed a constitution for their 
own government, and were admitted into the confederacy 
as an independent state. 

1799. State constitution revised and amended. 


KENTUCKY. 


553 


Religion. The most numerous Christian sect is 
that of the Baptists, who in the year 1787 had sixteen es¬ 
tablished congregations in this state. The Presbyterians 
and Methodists are next in point of number, and there are 
some Episcopalians: but there exists no distinction what¬ 
ever with respect to civil rights. 

Government and Laws. The executive autho¬ 
rity is vested in a governor, who is elected by the people, 
once in four years, and is ineligible for the next seven. The 
only qualifications required, are a residence in the state six 
years prior to election, and the age of 35 years. He has 
authority to grant reprieves and pardons, except in cases 
of impeachment; and to negative bills unless a majority 
of both houses should concur. He appoints sheriffs, by se¬ 
lecting one out of two persons recommended, in each coun¬ 
ty, by the county courts; and, with the concurrence of the 
senate he appoints justices of the peace, and all other officers 
not otherwise designated by the constitution.—In case of 
vacancy his office is executed by a lieutenant-governor who 
is always the speaker of the senate.—The legislature, which 
is styled the general assembly, consists of two branches, 
viz. a senate of 11 members elected by the people quadren¬ 
nially, subject to an annual renovation of one-fourth; and a 

house of representatives of 40 members chosen annually._ 

A senator must have resided in the state 6 years prior to 
his election, and be 35 years of age:—a representative, two 
years, and be 24 years of age.—The senate has a voice with 
the governor, in most of his appointments, and they try im¬ 
peachments.—The representatives originate money bills, 
impeach, and recommend sheriffs, coroners and justices of 
the peace in all the new counties. — -—The state treasurer is 
appointed by a concurrent vote of both houses. The judges 
of the superior and inferior courts are appointed by the go¬ 
vernor and senate, during good behaviour, and are remova¬ 
ble by impeachment, or complaint of two thirds of the 
assembly.—There are courts instituted in every county, 
which take cognizance of all actions in law: and a superior 
court, or court of appeals, co-extensive with the state, that 
has appellate jurisdiction only.—Every white freeman who 
has resided two years in the state, and one in the county, 
has a right to vote at elections, which is always done viva 
voce ,—The state sends two senators and six representatives 

3 A 




55 4 


KENTUCKY. 


to Congress. Senators appointed by a joint ballot of the two 
houses: representatives by a plurality of votes in districts. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. This state, 
which in the year 1790 contained but nine counties, and 
73,67V inhabitants, at the time of the last census, enume¬ 
rated forty-two counties and 220,959 inhabitants, which 
gives about five persons to a mile square. Of these 40,343 
were slaves. The white males 93,956, females 85,915. 
Under sixteen years of age 99,701, above 80,170, and of 
45 years and upwards as 9 to 100. As the state has been 
almost constantly engaged in defending itself against the 
surrounding Indian tribes, it can muster a large body of 
hardy experienced riflemen. The militia is estimated at 
20 , 000 . 

Manners and Customs. Though among the in* 
habitants there may be some who have fled from other states 
to avoid paying their just debts, and some perhaps to es¬ 
cape the punishment of their crimes, the great mass con¬ 
sists of men who have removed hither to purchase estates, 
and to make provision for their families, which they could 
not do in their native districts, and are distinguishable for 
youth, spirit and enterprise. The aged, the opulent, and 
the unaspiring have remained in their native seats, endeared 
to them by the scenes of their youth, by a circle of con¬ 
nections, or by the graves of their ancestors. As the po¬ 
pulation of Kentucky has been made up by emigrations 
from almost every other state in the union, it must com¬ 
prise a great variety of character which it would be difficult 
tp ascertain or delineate. The luxuries and refinements of 
the older states are spreading rapidly in all the principal 
towns and settlements, with the increase of commerce and 
agriculture; while the rage for engrossing land has pro¬ 
duced a multitude of law suits, and great ambiguity of 
titles. J 

Seminaries of Learning. There are at least 
two colleges established in Kentucky, one of them was 
founded while it belonged to Virginia, besides a number of 
private schools, in all the towns and villages, to teach the 
elements of a common English education. Latterly pro¬ 
fessors of the ingenious arts, portrait and landscape paint¬ 
ers, have met w ith considerable patronage from the weal¬ 
thy. Thei *9 are several printing offices in the state, and 


KENTUCKY. 


555 


two or three gazettes are edited weekly, at Lexington and 
Frankfort. 

Chief Towns. In a country which was so lately 
a wilderness there cannot be any very considerable towns. 
The only ones that deserve notice are, Lexington, situated 
on the Elk-horn, in Fayette county, containing 1800 inha¬ 
bitants, three places of religious worship, a court house, 
gaol, See. Frankfort on the bank of Kentucky river, 
which is the seat of government, has a state house built 
of stone in a very decent style, and about 600 inhabitants; 
and Louisville on the Ohio, a place of considerable trade, 
a port of entry, and promises to be the principal depot of 
the state. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The only ma¬ 
nufactures that deserve notice are whiskey, maple sugar, 
salt granulated from the salt springs by boiling, and a few 
coarse linen and woollen cloths for domestic consumption. 
The exports of the state consist of the various productions 
of the soil, wheat, flour, tobacco, hemp, beef, pork, lumber 
of various kinds, and a considerable quantity of furs and 
peltry, which in the year 1802 amounted to 626,673 dol¬ 
lars. These are conveyed down the Ohio to New Orleans, 
and there re-shipped to the Atlantic states, or the West In¬ 
dia islands.—The supplies of foreign merchandise are had 
mostly from Philadelphia or Baltimore.—In the year 1802, 
a ship of 220 tons was launched at Louisville, another of 
200 tons was on the stocks at the same place; and a sloop 
or schooner at Frankfort. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate of this in¬ 
terior state may be justly styled temperate. The winter 
commences about the solstice, and continues about seven 
weeks with intervals of very mild weather. Cattle gene¬ 
rally subsist without fodder.—The mercury is seldom below 
20 w in Fahrenheit’s thermometer. In January the creeks 
and brooks are commonly frozen, in some years, for a fort¬ 
night, but seldom more than three or four days. Even in 
this month the mercury has been observed to rise as high 
as 70°. At the summer solstice, and for two months en¬ 
suing, the heat is generally from 90° to 95°.—The most 
prevailing wind, throughout the year, is south-western, 
which, in summer, often produces heavy storms of rain, 
though without any sensible abatement of heat.—The au- 


556 


KENTUCKY. 


tumn is a delightful season, bringing with it three months 
of mild serene weather. 

Soil and Agriculture. In no district of the 
United States is the soil more diversified: some of it is 
too rich to produce good wheat until it has been reduced 
by preparatory crops of Indian corn, hemp, or tobacco. 
Lands thus qualified, as well as those of the second rate, 
will yield from twenty to thirty bushels of wheat per acre: 
but there are considerable tracts of an inferior kind, some 
that may be styled barren, others mountainous and incapa¬ 
ble of tillage, particularly near the springs of the Kentucky 
and other great rivers.—1 he articles principally cultivated 
are wheat, rye, Indian corn, barley, tobacco, flax and 
hemp, and these yield abundant crops without much la¬ 
bour with the plough or harrow. 

Animal and Vegetable Productions. Besides 
all the wild and domestic animals common to the Atlantic 
states, Kentucky still possesses considerable herds of deers 
and buffaloes, bears and panthers: the waters abound with 
fish, some of uncommon magnitude, as the rock, the perch 
and catfish. 1 he plains and the mountains are covered 
with the finest timber; the maple rich with a saccharine 
juice, the locust, the walnut, the magnolia, and the oak, 
the mulberry, wild cherry, coffee and cucumber tree, are 
found in all parts of the state, of the most luxuriant growth. 

Mountains, Rivers, Salt Springs. The prin¬ 
cipal elevations of this state lie on the east and south-east, 
near the confines of Virginia: they are denominated by the 
inhabitants the Great Laurel and Cumberland mountains, 
but appear to be only spurs or branches of the Allegheny, 
near its southern termination—The rivers most worthy of 
notice are, the Ohio which constitutes the northern boun¬ 
dary of the state, the Kentucky, Licking, and Green, running 
through it nearly from east to west, and the Cumberland 
which rises and unites with the Ohio within the limits of the 

state, but has its principal course through Tennessee._It 

has been frequently observed that the streams of this coun¬ 
try are defective at least four months of the year: the soil 
lying every where on a stratum of limestone, the water 
finds a passage to the interstices of the rock, and gradually 
disappears. As cultivation advances, this aridity must in¬ 
crease—The salt springs, or licks as they are denominated, 


TENNESSEE. 55 . r 

of which there are several in the state, yield salt sufficient 
not only for the internal consumption, but to supply the 
neighbouring settlements with a necessary which they 
would otherwise be obliged to transport from the Atlantic 
states, at an enormous expence. 


TENNESSEE. 


Situation and Extent. THIS state, which was 
formerly a part of North Carolina, extends from 35° to 36° 
30' of N. latitude, and from 6i° to 16^° W. longitude from 
Philadelphia, or from 82° to 92° W. from London, and is 
bounded on the E. by North Carolina; on the N. by Ken¬ 
tucky; on the W. by the river Mississippi; and on the S. 
by the Mississippi territory. The contents are nearly 
40,000 square miles. 

Original Population. It is not half a century 
since this country contained many populous towns of In¬ 
dians, principally of the Cherokee and Chickesaw nations, 
and these still claim an extensive tract, within the area of 
the state, which they have reserved for hunting-ground. 
But as there are white settlements on all sides of them 
they cannot retain their forests many years, for another 
continent would hardly satiate the avidity of the American 
land jobber. 

Memorable Events. The history of a country 
so recently reclaimed from a wilderness, cannot embrace 
many incidents worthy of record. 

1740—1750. The western part of North Carolina ex¬ 
plored by a company of Scotch gentlemen, who had ob¬ 
tained patents from the English government for extensive 
tracts. Some scattered settlements established under their 
patronage. 

1754. The English inhabitants are murdered by the 
French and Indians, when the colony was entirely de¬ 
stroyed. 


3 a 2 




558 


TENNESSEE. 


1765. Anew settlement commenced, which has con¬ 
tinued to increase to the present time, though not without 
frequent interruptions by the Indians. 

1780. Many families migrated under the conduct of 
General Robertson, and seated themselves in the neigh¬ 
bourhood of Nashville. 

1783. Part of this territory was allotted to compensate 
the officers and soldiers of the North Carolina regiments, 
who had served in the American war. Though this was 
like selling the bear skin before the beast was shot, the 
country acquired thereby a great increase of inhabitants, 
either of the military or their assignees. 

1785. A secession from the government of North Ca¬ 
rolina, and an attempt made to establish a new state, un¬ 
der the popular name of the state of Franklin. This 
caused a considerable ferment in North Carolina, which 
did not wholly subside till the year 1788. 

1789. Ceded by North Carolina to the general Con¬ 
gress, and erected into a territorial government. 

1796. Received into the union as an independent state. 
Constitution formed and approved. 

Religion. The religious denominations of Ten¬ 
nessee are various, but the Presbyterians perhaps are the 
most numerous; while there are several congregations of 
Baptists and Methodists, and a few of the people called 
Quakers. All enjoy equally the rights and privileges of 
free citizens. 

Government and Laws. The first executive 
magistrate, styled governor, is elected by the people for 
two years, and is re-eligible six years out of every term of 
eight. He must have resided in the state four years, be 
25 years of age, and possess a freehold of 500 acres. He 
has but few appointments; may grant reprieves and par¬ 
dons, except in cases of impeachment, and fill accidental 
vacancies in office till the next session of assembly. If 
the office become vacant by death or otherwise, the speaker 
of the senate acts as governor till next election_The le¬ 

gislature is chosen by the people biennially, and consists of 
t.\o bianuies, a senate and representatives, who are styled 
the general assembly: the qualifications of both houses 
are similar, viz. a freehold of 200 acres, full age, and a re¬ 
sidence in the state of three years. They appoint the 
judges of the courts, the state attorney, and most of the 


TENNESSEE. 


559 


other civil officers of government; and they possess the 
power of impeaching and removing either the governor or 

judges in case of official misconduct.-The judges hold 

their commissions during good behaviour; the sheriffs and 
coroners are appointed by the county courts, and are com¬ 
missioned by the governor for two years_When either 

party is connected with the judge by interest or consangui¬ 
nity, the governor may appoint three other competent men 

to hear and determine the cause in dispute_No fine above 

fifty dollars can be imposed in any case, except by a jury 
of twelve men—Every freeholder who is 21 years of age, 
and has resided six months in the state, has the right of 
suffrage.—The governor’s salary which is 750 dollars per 
annum, is fixed by the constitution till the year 1804, as 
are the salaries of the judges, the secretary, treasurer, 
state attorney, and members of assembly.—The state sends 
two senators and three representatives to congress: sena¬ 
tors appointed by joint ballot of both houses; representa¬ 
tives elected by a plurality of the freemen. 

Divisions, Population and Militia. In 1800 
this state was divided into six districts, comprising 18 coun¬ 
ties, and the inhabitants were 105,600, including 13,500 
slaves. Increase in five years 28,340; white males 47,180; 
females 44,529 ; persons under 16 years 51,913; above 
39,796; of 45 and upwards as 8± to a hundred. The mi¬ 
litia was estimated at 8000 in the year 1788, but at this 
period are more than double that number. 

Manners, Customs and Eanguage. Tennessee 
is settled principally by emigrants from Pennsylvania, Vir¬ 
ginia and the Carolinas, and of course resembles the agri¬ 
cultural classes of those states, except that it possesses a 
greater proportion of youth and enterprise. Except in the 
few Unvns, their mode of living and their amusements are 
rustic, their manners sociable but unpolished. English is the 
general language in private as well as public transactions. 

Seminaries oe Learning. There is a law of 
the state which provides for the institution of three col¬ 
leges, and there are several grammar and common Eng¬ 
lish schools in the principal towns; but it is too early to look 
for much fruit from these infant seminaries. The sons of 
the most wealthy are sent into the old states for their edu¬ 
cation. 




560 


TENNESSEE. 


Chief Towns. The two principal towns are Knox¬ 
ville on the Holston river, which has been chosen as the 
seat of government, and Nashville on the Cumberland; 
each containing about four hundred inhabitants. 

Manufactures and Commerce. The chief manu¬ 
factures are iron, there being several forges and furnaces, 
salt from the salines and salt licks; and coarse cotton cloths 
for home consumption; there is little of either exported. 
The commerce consists of exports of wheat, flour, cotton, 
furs, peltry, tobacco, and lumber to Orleans, to the amount 
of 443,900 dollars in the year; for which they receive in 
return the various manufactures of Europe, and the pro¬ 
duce of the West Indies, either directly from Orleans, or 
more circuitously from the Atlantic states. 

Climate and Seasons. The air of this state may 
in general be termed mild and healthy, and the water 
which issues mostly from limestone springs salubrious. 
The rigours of winter are unknown, and although the heat 
at mid-summer is intense, the thermometer having been 
as high as 98° at a medium, for two weeks successively 
in July; they feel not those great and sudden changes, 
which are so trying to the human frame in the Atlantic 
states. It is said they have very few physicians, and of 
course it may be concluded they have few dangerous dis¬ 
eases; which may be owing, in some measure, to so many 
of the inhabitants living the active life of hunters. 

Soil and Agriculture. Where the country is not 
broken by mountains, the soil is generally fertile, and pro¬ 
duces abundant crops of wheat, Indian corn, cotton, and 
indigo, as well as most of the hortulary plants, roots and 
fruits that are common to the Southern states. The soil 
being fresh, the agricultural process is not attended with 
much labour, which is well adapted to a district so thinly 
peopled. 

Mineral, Animal and Vegetable Productions. 
The iron mines of Tennessee are numerous and produc¬ 
tive, having been worked for several years to a consider¬ 
able amount, and there are some indications of lead ore. 
Besides most of the quadrupeds that are common to the 
other states, Tennessee still possesses the deer, the hart, 
and the buffaloe, and the rivers abound with a variety of 
the tinny race. The extensive forests are filled with tim¬ 
ber of a luxuriant growth, adapted to all the purposes of 


OHIO. 


561 


fuel and architecture, while the undergrowth in some 
counties consists of cane of uncommon height with ange¬ 
lica, ginseng, snake root, valerian, pink root, and many 
other medicinal plants. 

Mountains, Rivers and Springs. The moun¬ 
tains of this country are high and extensive, and intersect 
it in various directions; though the Cumberland, the great 
Iron, and the Bald mountains, which are the most conspi¬ 
cuous, extend principally from north-east to south-west. 
1 he summit of apart of Cumberland exhibits a high table 
land of near 50 miles in breadth, and is covered with a mid¬ 
dling soil which will be very valuable when vacant land is 
scarce, as it must afford some of the most healthy situations 

in the district.-The Tennessee and Cumberland, with 

their several branches, are the principal streams that water 
this state. That which gives its name to the state is a very 
considerable river. It springs from the eastern range of 
mountains that divide the state from North Carolina, and 
runs in a south-west direction to near the muscle shoals; 
thence its course is nearly north till it reaches the Ohio. It 
may be navigated by large vessels 250 miles, and is boatable 
four times the distance. The principal springs of the Cum¬ 
berland river rise in the neighbourhood of Powell’s moun¬ 
tain; and although it waters a considerable tract of this 
state, its course is equally through Kentucky, where it 
unites with the Ohio about twelve miles above the Ten¬ 
nessee. It is navigable by large vessels to Nashville, which 
is 200 miles, and twice the distance by small boats. The 
salt springs of this state are numerous, and yield all the 
salt that is wanted for domestic consumption. 


OHIO. 


Situation and Extent. THIS frontier state is 
situated between 39° and 43 u of north latitude, anti the lon¬ 
gitude of 5° and 10 9 west from Philadelphia, equal to 80* 





562 


OHIO. 


and 85° west from London. It is bounded on the east by 
Pennsylvania; on the north by an east and west line touch¬ 
ing the southernmost point of lake Michigan; on the south 
by the river Ohio; and on the west by a meridian from the 
mouth of the great Miami to its northern limit—contain¬ 
ing an area of about 42,000 square miles. 

Original Population. This territory was re¬ 
cently purchased by the United States of several Indian 
tribes, the latest native proprietors: among these the most 
influential were the Sacs, Chippeways, Ottawaus, Poute- 
watamies, Wyandotts and Delawares. At the close of the 
American war these potent tribes were estimated, by some 
at twenty, by others at sixty thousand souls: the present 
enumeration hardly exceeds three or four hundred. In¬ 
temperance, diseases, scarcity of game, and the parent 
of all these evils, the approximation of the whites, has 
either destroyed, or driven them over the lakes. 

Religion, Laws, Government, Manners, Cus¬ 
toms and Language. The great body of settlers in 
this western country are Dissenting Protestants, with a few 
scattered villages of French, who had spread themselves 
from the mouth of St. Lawrence to the estuary of the Mis¬ 
sissippi, when Canada belonged to France. Till the year 
1802 this country was under a territorial government, being 
part of what was then called the North-Western Territory. 
It now sends two senators with one representative to Con¬ 
gress, as a member of the federal union. The general 
language is English: their manners and customs, hardy 
and unpolished, such as are commonly found among the 
frontier inhabitants, who may be styled the pioneers of Ame¬ 
rican colonization. The constitution of the state is cast in 
the common mould of governor or executive chief, and a 
legislature of two branches. The governor is chosen for 
two years-—he is commander in chief, and has power to 
grant reprieves and pardons, which in this country must 
be a useful prerogative. The senate are elected for the 
same term, with an annual rotation of one half. The re¬ 
presentatives hold their seats but one year. The law is ad¬ 
ministered by a supreme court of three judges, which is a 
court of equity as well as appeals. The jurisdiction of the 
common pleas is limited to actions of one hundred dollars, 
subject to an appeal in disputes, above twenty dollars, as 
well as all cases oi felony. The judges are appointed by 


OHIO. 


563 


the assembly for seven years, and justices are chosen by 
ihe people for three years. 

Counties, Towns, Population and Militia. The 
state is divided into eighteen counties, which in the year 
1800 contained 45,365 free white inhabitants: no slaves: 
males 24,453. Most of the inhabitants are in the prime 
of life, there being only 3350 of 45 years and upwards. 
1 he chief towns are Chilicotha, the seat of government, 
situated on the Sciota, about forty miles above its junction 
"ith the Ohio; Marietta, at the confluence of the Mus- 
kingham and Ohio; and Cincinnati on the Ohio, not far 
from the mouth of the little Miami, a place of considerable 
trade. In proportion to the number of inhabitants the mi¬ 
litia is very considerable, as most of the males are of an 
age to bear arms. 

Commerce, &c. The principal manufactures are 
whiskey, salt and sugar. The chief purchases of foreign 
merchandise are made in Philadelphia and Baltimore: and 
the excess of their agricultural productions, their furs and 
peltry, are either consumed by the numerous emigrants 
that flow hither annually, or are shipped for New Orleans. 
In the year 1802 there was a ship of 220 tons, and a brig 
of 120 tons built at Marietta, while three brigs of 100 tons 
each, and a sloop of 80 tons were on the stocks, some of 
them almost ready to be launched. As this state is situ¬ 
ated between the Ohio and lake Erie its trade will proba¬ 
bly be divided between those two waters. 

Climate, Seasons, Soil and Productions. The 
general temperature of the air is considerably milder than 
that of the Atlantic states in the same latitude. The cold 
is more equable in winter, and the heat more moderate in 
summer. T his appears pretty evident from cotton flou¬ 
rishing at Cincinnati and Vincennes, in the latitude of 39° 
which cannot be raised in the Atlantic states farther to the 
north than 36°. The mountains of Ohio are very incon¬ 
siderable, while the savannas, or prairies, are numerous and 
extensive. The soil is generally loam, covering a stratum 
of clay, and yields on cultivation the most luxuriant crops 
of grain, cotton and tobacco. The country is mostly well 
timbered—and there appears to be an abundance of coal, 
as well as some iron ore : but it has been so partially ex¬ 
plored, that little can be said with certainty of its mineral 
treasures. 


564 


MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. 


Rivers and Mountains. The streams that water 
this state are sufficiently numerous, but neither deep nor 
rapid, the country being an extensive level. Creeks which 
are of considerable volume in winter disappear in summer. 
The situations for mill-seats are comparatively few, and 
this is an evil which must increase as improvement ad¬ 
vances. The rivers most worthy of notice are the Beaver, 
Muskingham, Hockhocking, Sciota, and the two Miamies, 
which run into the Ohio, and the Sandusky and Cayahoga 
that unite with lake Erie. Sciota, which is the largest, is 
navigable only by large boats, except when it is swelled by 
a flood. 


MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. 


Situation and Extent. THIS territory, which 
was formerly the western part of Georgia, is situated be¬ 
tween the 31® and 35° of north latitude, and between 9° 
and 16° of longitude west from Philadelphia, or 85° and 
92° west from London. It is bounded on the E. by the 
river Catahoochy ; on the N. by the state of Tennessee ; 
on the W. by the Mississippi; and on the S. by West Flo¬ 
rida, containing an area of about 70,000 square miles. The 
greater part of this extensive region is still the property of 
the Creek, Choctaw, Chikesaw, and Cherokee Indians, two 
other potent tribes, the Yazoos and Natches, having been 
destroyed by wars, or retired further into the western 
forests. 

1 he first European settlement in this country was made 
by the French from New Orleans or Florida. As long since 
as the year 1727 there was a colony of Frenchmen settled 
at a place called the Natches, but they were mostly massa¬ 
cred by the natives. In the year 1763 a considerable body 
of Acadians removed Either, having been expelled from 
their former abode in Nova Scotia by the English, for taking 
part with their countrymen in the war which had just com- 




MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. 


5 65 

menced. But while this territory remained under the do¬ 
minion of the French, no improvements were made worth 
noticing, either in building or cultivating the soil; for they 
excel more in over-running a country that has been im¬ 
proved by others, than in clearing and cultivating a wil¬ 
derness. 

The general face of the country is an extensive level, 
wide savannas, and forests of towering timber, consisting 
of most of the species that are useful for fuel or archi¬ 
tecture; among which the pine, the red and white cedar, 

are the most conspicuous.-The soil is generally very 

rich, and wdiere it has been cultivated, produces great 
ciops of giain, cotton, indigo, and tobacco of a superior 
quality. The cultivation of the sugar cane has been at¬ 
tempted, but the frosts which some years visit even this 

southern latitude, have rendered it rather precarious._ 

There are several noble rivers that pervade this territory, 
but the outlets of most of them are in the Spanish domi¬ 
nions; a circumstance that abates much from the value of 

this fertile country.-The principal streams are, the 

Catahoochey, which rises in the Apalachian mountains, 
and after washing the western boundary of the territory, 

runs into the bay of Apalachee;-the Escambia, a large 

stream that discharges into the bay of Pensacola;-the 

Allabahma that falls into the bay of Mobile;-the Pearl 

river, the Amit and the Yazo, which unite with the Mis¬ 
sissippi, near the northern boundary of the territory: most 
of these rivers are navigable by boats and barges from fifty 
to one hundred and fifty miles.—The territory is divided 
into three or four counties, containing about nine thousand 
inhabitants (one third slaves) and is governed by an ordi¬ 
nance of congress, and a governor and judges appointed 
by the president of the United States. 








INDIANA. 


THIS name was at first given to a tract of land granted 
by the Six Nations, to William Trent and Co. as a com¬ 
pensation for injuries they had sustained by Indian depre¬ 
dations; but it now comprises all the north-western terri¬ 
tory belonging to the United States, and is bounded on the 
E. by the state of Ohio; on the N. and W. by the north¬ 
ern and western limits of the United States; and on the 
S. by the river Ohio.-This very extensive region com¬ 

prises a great variety of soil, the greater part of which 
has been very imperfectly explored. Some of it is re¬ 
ported to be of excellent quality;-it is watered by se¬ 

veral noble rivers, the principal of which are the Wabash, 

the Illinois, and the Kaskaskias.-The inhabitants are 

computed to be between five and six thousand, and are 
governed in the same manner as the Mississippi territory, 
by a special ordinance of congress.-The towns or vil¬ 

lages are few, and of small account; the most remarkable 
is Vincennes, situated on the Wabash, and planted by the 
French, as early as 1735 ; but so little inclined to labour 
and improvement were these people, that when Volney, 
their countryman, visited them in 1797, the place contained 
no more than 50 houses, and these were tenanted by a 
race of demusauvages , as “ meagre, tawney and poor as 
Arabs.” If this comparison had been made by any other 
than a Frenchman, we should have suspected its fidelity; 
but the philosopher knew both people, and had traced a 
striking resemblance in the moral, as well as physical, at¬ 
tributes of the two nations, or he would hardly have ex¬ 
pressed himself so freely. 






LOUISIANA. 


1 HE extent and boundaries of this newly acquired ter¬ 
ritory are far from being ascertained; but the friends of 
peace cherish a hope that they will at a short period be 
put in a train of amicable adjustment. 

While the French possessed Louisiana they comprised 
under that name all the country that lies W. of the Alle¬ 
gheny mountains, from the mouth of the Mississippi, north¬ 
ward, to their other possessions in Canada; and westward, 
to the Spanish dominions in New Mexico. But the Eng¬ 
lish never acknowledged these limits, so far as they affected 
their colonies; and they now claim the port of Sir Francis 
Drake on the Pacific ocean, marking the northern boun¬ 
dary of the Spanish territories, in North America, by the 
sources of the Rio Bravo, and the latitude of 39° 30' as 
the medial line; which will intercept many of the upper 
branches of the Mississippi, and great part of the waters 
of the Missouri. The lines therefore on the north and the 
west remain unadjusted. On the east there is less room 
for controversy: this boundary is defined by the courses 
of the Mississippi, and by the river Ibberville, as asserted 
by the court of Spain, though the government of the United 
States claims as far as the river Perdido in West Florida: 
on the south it extends to the gulf of Mexico. Hence it 
appears that the United States have paid fifteen millions 
of dollars for a country, the boundaries of which may be 
disputed at least on two sides; though we presume that 
the disputes will not be attended with any serious conse¬ 
quences. 

But whatever difficulties may occur in this respect; 
whatever the territory may have cost more than it is worth 
to the purchasers; and however it has been alienated from 
the king of Spain; it is a very extensive region, as assumed 
by the most moderate American calculators, and contains 
a larger compass of land and water than the United King¬ 
doms of Great Britain and Ireland, being not less than 
one hundred thousand square miles. 


568 


LOUISIANA. 


Louisiana was first discovered by the Spaniards in 1539. 
But finding no gold mines to satiate their cupidity, and 
meeting an unfavourable reception from the natives, they 

soon deserted it.-It was afterwards more fully explored 

by the french, in 1682, under the enterprising Le Salle, 
who penetrated the wilderness, by land and water, from 
Canada to the Mississippi, and down that river to its estu¬ 


ary..-In 1697 the king of France sent one Ibberville, a 

naval officer, to prosecute the work begun by Le Salle; 
and he established the first permanent settlement in Lou¬ 
isiana.-1 he fame of the country being more generally 

known in 1717, a company was instituted in France, under 
the title of the Mississippi Company, whose object was to 
carry on an extensive trade with the natives, and to found 
a colony, which, uniting with Canada, might form a cordon 
round the British settlements in North America.-In 


1720, they laid the foundation of the town of New Orleans, 

near the mouth of the Mississippi-In 1762 the French 

ceded this country to Spain, under which government it 
remained til] 1800; when it was reconveyed to Bonaparte, 
first Consul of France, in exchange for the kingdom of 
Etruria.-But Etruria (formerly the dukedom of Tus¬ 

cany) seems still under the domination of Bonaparte, and 
the Spaniard on whom it was to be settled has only a nomi¬ 
nal jurisdiction. Perhaps it may be considered as too im¬ 


portant a part of Europe for any prince but one of the Im¬ 
perial family.--At this stage of the conveyance there 

seems to be some blemish in the title; but as it is not the 
fashion of the times for sovereigns to examine title-deeds 
with a very scrupulous eye, the president and senate have 
not discovered any thing to prevent a transfer from Bona¬ 
parte to the United States of the territory in question. Of 
course a treaty was ratified by the high contracting parties, 
and the sovereignty over the soil and the inhabitants of 
Louisiana was transferred to the United States, in April, 
1803.— : —Some scrupulous republicans may not altogether 
approve this purchase of a dubious title, or this traffic in 


human slock, without consulting the choice of the party, 
after the manner of European despots; but these qualms, 
if they ever occurred, were considered by our Executive 
as trivial, when weighed against the'acquisition of such an 
important dominion. 










LOUISIANA. 5(0 

The soil, productions, improvements, See. of this country 
are not better known than the boundaries. From the scanty 
materials we possess, it appears that a considerable part of 
the banks of the Mississippi, the portion best known, will 
for ages to come, be inundated with periodical floods, and 
be uninhabitable. The river overflows its banks at least 
once a year, when the water rises fifty feet above its com¬ 
mon level, and the torrent bears along with it trees and a 
prodigious mass of rubbish, which, being checked by the 
gulf stream in their passage to the sea, form shoals at the 
mouth of the river. These alluvia, in the course of num¬ 
berless years, have produced a considerable tract of land, 
part of which constitutes the island of New Orleans, and 
divided the mouth of the river into several channels. Some 
of these are dry at low water, as the channel of Ibberville, 
although at flood it conveys part of the Mississippi to lake 
Maurepas, and thence through lake Ponchartrain to the 
sea. The principal branch below Orleans which is called 
Baleyze, and is the ship channel, has commonly but six¬ 
teen feet of water. About seventy miles above Orleans 
there is a channel on the west side of the liver, called by 
the French la Fourche, which is dry except in freshets; 
and about one hundred and twenty miles higher is another 
that is boatable at all times, and unites with the bay of 
Mexico at St. Bernards. On this last mentioned branch 
there is a considerable settlement. 

On the east side of the Mississippi, for 200 miles nor¬ 
therly, the land is very low, being formed by the alluvial 
depositions of the river, and is inexhaustibly rich; as it is 
also on the west side, for about 150 miles: thence to the 
mouth of the Ohio the country is inundated every year to 
the extent of thirty miles, with a depth of water of from 
two to ten feet; a fit receptacle for alligators and snapping 
turtles. Northward of these drowned lands the elevation 
commences, the country is intersected by mountains, and 
exhibits the most stupendous prairies, or natural meadows, 
that are any where to be seen. 

The principal settlements are on the island of New Or¬ 
leans, at la Fourche, Chaffala, Ibberville, Pointe coupee 
and Red River; being confined principally to the banks of 
the streams, and seldom extending above one mile from 
the water.—The principal town is New Orleans, situated 
on the east side of the Mississippi, near the middle of the 

3 b 2 


570 


LOUISIANA. 


island, in the latitude of 30° north, and longitude of 90 a 
west from the meridian of London. It is divided into 
squares, the streets crossing at right angles, in the man¬ 
ner of Philadelphia. The houses are mostly of bricks, 
some of them two and three stories high, and handsomely 
built; but as the ground is newly formed they are wholly 
without cellars. The inhabitants are estimated at about 
ten thousand. The principal edifices are, a government- 
house with spacious gardens, a hospital, custom-house, 
a military barrack, prison, market-house, &c.—The ter¬ 
ritory is watered by several considerable rivers which may 
be considered as branches of the Mississippi: the most 
noted are the Red River, the Arkanza, the Black River 
and the Missouri; some of them being navigable a thou¬ 
sand miles through the wilderness.-The immeasurable 

forests ol Louisiana are filled with the same vegetable pro¬ 
ductions as the southern territories of the United States; 
and the agriculture consists principally of cotton, rice, to¬ 
bacco, indigo, maize and sugar cane.—The land abounds 
in mineral treasures: fossils salt, lead, copper, coal and 
iron have been discovered in several parts of this exten¬ 
sive region-The commerce of Ne\v Orleans has been 

augmented greatly within a few years. In the year 1802 
ti.e exports were valued at two millions of dollars, and the 
impoits rather more.— I he population has been estimated 
at 50,000 whites, being principally French, with about 

40,000 slaves, blacks and mulattoes-Since the country 

has come under the dominion of the United States, the 
go\ ei Diit^nt has been Giviocd into two departments. The 
lo\wi dcpaitinent whicn is called the territory of New 
O:icans, is under tne jurisdiction of a governor, appointed 
lor three years by the President of the United States, to- 
gcinei with a secretary, and a council consisting of thir¬ 
teen persons, i he latter, with the governor, constitutes 

the territorial legislature.-Justice is administered by a 

superior and several inferior courts, where trials are de¬ 
cided by juries, in all capital offences, as well as in other 

jess important cases, it the parties require it._The 

northern or upper part is called the district of Louisiana 
and is subject to the jurisdiction of the governor of Indi- 
ana, who, with the assistance of the judges, is invested 
with full power to make and execute all laws and ordinan¬ 
ces that may be found necessary for the well-beins? of the 
inhabitants. , ° 






THE SPANISH DOMINIONS 


IX NORTH AMERICA. 


Boundaries. IN estimating the extent of these 
large and flourishing possessions it will be necessary, in 
the iirst place, to consider the boundaries. That towards 
the S. E. is decidedly the eastern boundary of Veragua, 
the last province of North America. Towards the north 
the Spaniards do not readily assent to a boundary: but 
even according to the English maps it ascends to the Tur¬ 
tle lake, one of the sources of the Mississippi. On the 
west the English specially claim the port of Sir Francis 
Drake; and mark the Spanish boundary at Fort St. Fran¬ 
cisco, to the N. of the town of Monterey. Upon the whole 
the sources of the Rio Bravo may be assumed as a medial 
boundary, as there are several small Spanish settlements 
to the north of Santa Fe, that is about lat. 39° 30'; while 
the southern boundary is about lat. 7° 30': hence a length 
of thirty-two degrees, or 1920 g. miles. But the breadth 
little corresponds to this prodigious length of territory ; 
though in one place, from the Atlantic shore of East Flo¬ 
rida to those of California on the Pacific, it amounts to 
about three quarters of that length; but the narrowest part 
of the isthmus in Veragua is not above 25 B. miles: in 
general the medial breadth can scarcely be computed at 
more than 400 g. miles. 

Of this wide empire, the chief part is distinguished by 
the name of Mexico, or New Spain; the provinces in 




57 2 


SPANISH DOMINIONS. 


ascending from the south to the north being Veragua, 
Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, (with the Mosquito 
shore claimed by the English) Guatimala and Verapaz, 
Chiapa, Tabasco, and the peninsula of Yucatan, Guaxaca, 
Mexico proper, including subdivisions; with new Gallicia., 
Biscay, and Leon. 

The provinces farther to the north are Cinaloa and others 
on the gulf of California, with that large Chersonese itself; 
New Mexico includes the most northern central settle¬ 
ments on the Rio Bravo: while towards the east Louisiana 
and the two Floridas, complete the chief dominations. But 
the great divisions are properly only four: 1 . Louisiana.* 
2. The two Floridas. 3. New Mexico, which contains 
Coaguilla, New Estremadura, Sonora, Texas, New Navarre. 
4. Mexico, or New Spain, which includes the other pro¬ 
vinces, and seems to extend to the river of Hiaqui, but the 
boundaries between Old and New Mexico do not seem to 
be indicated with any precision. 

Original Population. The original population 
of these extensive regions was various, consisting of Mexi¬ 
cans and other tribes; considerably civilized in the centre, 
while to the north and south were savage races. The ori¬ 
gin of the Mexicans as well as the other aborigines re¬ 
mains in great obscurity, after the fruitless researches of 
many ingenious and learned men. But if we are not able 
to trace the origin of these people, we can ascertain their 
extermination in the dark history of the Spanish conquests. 

Historical Epochs. The historical epochs of 
Mexico have been of little moment since it was conquered 
by the Spaniards in 1521, when the last monarch Guati- 
mozin perished, Montezuma having died in the preceding 
year. 

The extensive peninsula of California was discovered by 
Cortez, in 1536, but was so completely neglected, that in 
most charts it was represented as an island. The Jesuits 
afterwards explored this province, and acquired a domi¬ 
nion there as complete as in Paraguay. In 1765 a war 
broke out with the savages, which ended in their submis¬ 
sion, 1771. During their marches the Spaniards discover- 

* Lately restored to France; and since purchased of France by 
the United States, for fifteen millions of dollars, and a complete 
discharge for countless spoliations by sea and land. 


SPANISH DOMINIONS. 


573 


eel at Cineguilla, in the province of Sonora, a plain of four¬ 
teen leagues in extent, in which vast quantities of gold were 
found in large lamps, at the depth of only sixteen inches. 
Betore the end ot the year 1771, above two thousand per¬ 
sons were settled at Cineguilla: and other mines, not in¬ 
ferior in wealth, have been discovered in other parts of 
Sonora and Cinaloa. 

Antiquities. The ancient monuments of the 
Mexicans seem chiefly to consist of a few symbolical paint- 
ings, the colours of which are remarkably bright, but the 
designs rude. Some of their utensils and ornaments have 
also been preserved, but they are coarse and uncouth. 
A heir edifices appear to have been little superior, being 
meanly built with turf and stone, and thatched with reeds. 
A he great temple of Mexico was a square mound of earth, 
only ninety feet wide, partly faced with stone; with a quad¬ 
rangle of thirty feet at the top, on which was a shrine of 
the deity, probably of wood: and in truth the Mexicans 
appear to have little exceeded the inhabitants of Easter 
Island in any of the arts. 

Religion. The religion of the Spanish settlers in 
these provinces is well known to be the Roman Catholic, 
which, with the characteristic jealousy of the government, 
impedes industry and prosperity. It is computed that one 
fifth part of the Spaniards consists of ecclesiastics, monks, 
and nuns. The establishment of the inquisition, and the 
strange fanaticism of the Spaniards, who disgrace the 
European name, have not only crushed all spirit of exer¬ 
tion, but have prevented the admixture of other Europeans, 
whose industry might improve their settlements, and whose 
courage might defend them. 

The religion of the ancient Mexicans appears to have 
been chiefly founded on fear, the temples being decorated 
with the figures of destructive animals: and fasts, penances, 
voluntary wounds, and tortures formed the essence of their 
rites. Human sacrifices were deemed the most accepta¬ 
ble; and every captive taken in war was cruelly tortured 
and sacrificed. 

Government. The ancient government of Mexico 
was an hereditary monarchy, tempered however by a kind 
of election not unknown in the barbarous ages of Europe. 
Despotism seems to have begun with the celebrated Mon¬ 
tezuma. There were several royal councils, and classes of 


57 4 


SPANISH DOMINIONS. 


nobility, most of them hereditary. Land was not sup¬ 
posed to belong to the monarch, but was alienable by the 
proprietors. There was no code of laws, and their ar¬ 
mour and tactics appear to have been extremely rude. 

The Spanish government is vested in the viceroy of 
Mexico, whose rank and power are far superior to those of 
Peru and the new kingdom of Granada. The legal salary 
of the viceroys of Mexico and Peru is now forty thousand 
ducats; but the disposal of lucrative offices, monopolies, 
connivances, presents, &c. sometimes swell them to an 
enormous amount. The court of the viceroy is formed 
on the regal model, with horse and foot guards, a grand 
household, and numerous attendants. In the provinces 
there are tribunals called audiences, of which there are 
eleven for Spanish America; and the council of the Indies, 
resident in Spain, controls even the viceroys. 

Population. The population of all the Spanish pro¬ 
vinces in North America has been estimated at little more 
than seven millions; and the inhabitants of Mexico were 
computed at 150,000. 

1 he population ol America, before the European con¬ 
quest, appears to have been greatly exaggerated, as usual 
in every case of the like nature. It is probable that when 
America was discovered, the whole population, including 
the West Indies, did not exceed four millions. 

Army, &c. The Spanish armies in America must 
depend in a great measure upon the supplies sent from 
Spain; to check the natives and prevent foreign invasion. 
The navy is also that of the parent country; but there 
are many guard-ships and commercial vessels solely ap¬ 
propriated to the American colonies. The revenue which 
Mexico yields to the Spanish crown amounts to above a 
million sterling; but there are great expences. By the 
most recent accounts, the total revenue derived by Spain 
from America and the Philippines is 2,700,000/. of which 
one halt must be deducted for the extravagant charges of 
administration. 

Political Importance. The political import¬ 
ance of colonies is of course merged in that of the parent 
country, as long as they are retained in subjection. Dr* 
Robertson has observed that the Mexican gazettes are 
filled with descriptions of religious processions, and ac¬ 
counts of the consecrations of churches, festivals and beati- 


SPANISH DOMINIONS. 


575 


fication of saints, and other superstitious baubles, while civil 
and commercial affairs occupy little attention. Few exer¬ 
tions of ability or industry can be expected from such fa¬ 
natics ; and it may easily be predicted that if Spain do not 
amend her colonial system, her rich possessions will, at the 
first onset, become a prey to their northern neighbours. 

Manners and Customs. The manners and cus¬ 
toms of the Spaniards in their North American settlement 
have not been particularly illustrated; but if they differ 
from those of the parent country it is chiefly by superior 
dissipation and religious fanaticism. A peculiar feature of 
the ancient Mexican language was, that a termination indi¬ 
cating respect might be added to every word. Thus in 
speaking to an equal, the word father was tatl , but to a su¬ 
perior tatzin. Their wars were constant and sanguinary; 
and their manners in general corresponded with this bar¬ 
barous disposition, the principal warriors covering them¬ 
selves with the skins of the sacrificed victims, and dancing 
through the streets. The year was divided into eighteen 
months, each of twenty days; and five days were added, 
which, like the French Sanscullotides, were dedicated to 
festivity. 

Language. Mexican words frequently end in ll; 
and are besides of a surprising and unpronounceable length, 
resembling in this respect the language of the savages in 
North America, and some of the African dialects. The 
language wants the consonants 6, t,f g, r, and s; in which 
respect only it strictly coincides with the Peruvian; but 
the Peruvian is a far superior and more pleasing language, 
though some modifications of the verbs be of extreme 
length. 

There are several laudable institutions in the Spanish 
settlements for the education of the natives, and some col¬ 
leges or universities; but the fanatical spirit ol the instruc¬ 
tors renders such foundations of little value. 

Cities. The chief city of New Spain, and all Spa¬ 
nish America, is Mexico, celebrated for the singularity 
of its situation. In a beautiful vale surrounded with moun¬ 
tains, the lake of Tezcuco is joined on the south to that of 
Chaleo by a strait, the whole circuit of these lakes being 
about ninety miles. In a small isle to the north of this 
junction rose the old city of Mexico, accessible by several 
causeys raised in the shallow waters, but on the east side 


576 


SPANISH DOMINIONS. 


there was no communication except by canoes, the houses 
being all founded on piles. The streets are wide and straight, 
but very dirty; and the houses resembling those in Spain, 
are tolerably built. The chief edifice is the viceroy’s pa¬ 
lace, which stands near the cathedral in a central square, 
but is rather solid than elegant. Behind the palace is the 
mint, in which more than a hundred workmen are em¬ 
ployed as the owners of the mines here exchange their bul¬ 
lion for coin. The other chief buildings are the churches, 
chapels and convents, which are very numerous and richly 
ornamented. The rail round the high altar of the cathe¬ 
dral is of solid silver, and there is a silver lamp so capa¬ 
cious that three men get in to clean it; while it is also en¬ 
riched with lions’ heads, and other ornaments in pure gold. 
“ To the north of the town, near the suburbs, is the pub¬ 
lic walk, or Alameda . A rivulet runs all round it, and forms 
a pretty large square, with a bason and jet d'eau in the 
middle. Eight walks, with each two row's of trees, termi¬ 
nate at this bason like a s'ar. A few paces off, and facing the 
Alameda, is the Quemadero ; this is the place where they 
burn the Jews and other unhappy victims of the awful 
tribunal of inquisition. This Quemadero is an enclosure 
between four walls, and filled with ovens, into which are 
thrown over the walls the poor wretches who are con¬ 
demned to be burnt alive. The Spanish inhabitants are com¬ 
monly clothed in silk, their hats being adorned with belts 
of gold and roses of diamonds; even the slaves have brace¬ 
lets and necklaces of gold, silver, pearls, and gems. The 
ladies are distinguished for beauty and gallantry. Mexico, 
though inland, is the seat of vast commerce between Vera 
Cruz on the east, and Acapulco on the west; and the 
shops display a profusion of gold, silver, and jewels. In 
magnificent regularity it yields to few cities even on the 

ancient continent.”-There are many other considerable 

towns in the Spanish dominions in North America. Even 
the inferior cities contain, as Robertson observes, a supe¬ 
rior population to those of any other European nation in 
America, that of Angelos being computed at 60,000, and 
of Guadalaxara 30,000, exclusive of Indians. 

Edifices. The chief edifices are the cathedrals, 
churches, ana convents, as may be expected where the cler¬ 
gy are so predominant, so that civil architecture and civil 
affairs are almost entirely neglected. Part of what may 



SPANISH DOMINIONS. 


577 


be called the high European road from Vera Cruz to Mexi¬ 
co, is tolerably smooth and pleasant; and the others arc 
piobablv neglected, and in so mountainous a country they 
are rough and precipitous. Inland navigation seems un¬ 
known, and is perhaps unnecessary. 

Manufactures and Commerce. New Spain is 
singularly distinguished by the multitude and variety of 
its productions. Cochineal and cocoa, with a little silk and 
cotton, form articles of export; but the chief are gold, sil¬ 
ver, and precious stones. There was a celebrated fair at 
Acapulco, on the annual arrival of the ships from Peru 
and Chili; after which the noted galleon, laden with the 
wealth of America, pursued her course to Manilla. Other 


arrangements are now followed, and smaller vessels em¬ 
ployed since 1748. In 1764 monthly packets were esta¬ 
blished between Corugna and Havanna, whence smaller 
vessels pass to Vera Cruz, and to Portobello in South Ame¬ 
rica; and an interchange of productions by these vessels is 
also permitted. In the following year the trade to Cuba 
was laid open to all Spain; and the privilege was after¬ 
wards extended to Louisiana, and the provinces of Yuca¬ 
tan and Champeachy. In 1774 free intercourse was per¬ 
mitted between the three viceroyalties of Mexico, Peru, 
and New Granada. Occasionally they open some of their 
ports to American vessels: and at the close of an Euro¬ 
pean war seize those that happen to remain there, as con¬ 
cerned in a clandestine trade. 

. Climate and Seasons. In Florida, chiefly con¬ 
sisting of low grounds, the climate is insalubrious in the 
summer, but the winters are mild and healthy. The cli¬ 
mate of Louisiana is cold in the northern parts. In Cali¬ 
fornia epidemical distempers seem to be frequent; but the 
country has not been sufficiently examined by scientific 
observers. Moisture seems to predominate in the isthmus; 
but not to such a degree as in the South American province 
of Darien, where it may be said to rain for nine months of 
the year. The maritime districts of Mexico are hot and 
unhealthy. The inland mountains, oh the contrary, will 
sometimes present white frost and ice in the dog days. In 
other inland provinces the climate is mild and benign. 
There are plentiful rains; thunder is frequent; and the 
earthquakes and volcanoes are additional circumstances of 


terror. 


578 


SPANISH DOMINIONS. 


Rivers. The streams in the isthmus are of a short 
course, and little remarkable in any respect. The princi¬ 
pal river of Spanish North America is, beyond all com¬ 
parison, the Rio Bravo, called also del Norte, or of the 
northern star. The course of this important river, so far 
as its sources can yet be conjectured, may be about 1000 
B. miles; but Rs whole circuit probably exceeds that of 
the Danube. 


Next in consequence would seem to be the Rio Colora¬ 
do, on the east of the Bravo, whose comparative course 
may be about 700 B. miles. Towards the west is a large 
river which flows into the gulf of California, called Colora¬ 
do de los Martyr es ; but the main stream seems rather to 
be the Rio Grande de los Aftostolos . The course of this 
river may be computed at 600 B. miles. 

Lakes. The chief lake in Spanish North America, 
so far as yet explored, is that of Nicaragua, which is about 
170 B. miles in length, N. W. to S. E. and about half that 
in breadth. This grand lake is situated in the province of 
the same name towards the south of the isthmus, and has 
a great outlet, the river of St. Juan, to the gulf of Mexico, 
while a smaller stream is by some supposed to flow into 
the Pacific. In the hands of an enterprising people this 
lake would supply the long wished for passage, from the 
Atlantic into the Pacific, and in the most direct course that 
could be desired. Nature has already supplied half the 
means; and it is probable tnat a complete passage might 
have been opened, at half the expense wasted in fruitless 
expeditions to discover such a passage by the north-west, 
or the north-east. 

Mountains. The whole of the Spanish territories 
in North America may be regarded as mountainous. The 
grand chain of the Andes seems to terminate on the west 
of the gulf of Darien in South America, but by others is 
supposed to extend to the lake of Nicaragua. 

i o the north of the lake of Nicaragua the main ridges 
often pass east and west. In the ancient kingdom of Mexi¬ 
co, which extended from near the lake of Chapala in the 
north, to Chiapa, on the river Tabasco in the south, the 
summits rise to great height, as being the central parts of 
a range wholly unconnected with the Andes. The moun¬ 
tain oi Qrisalm is said to be the highest in Mexico; and its 
snowy summit is visible from the capital, a distance of sixty 


SPANISH DOMINIONS. 


579 


miles. This celebrated mountain is to the S. E. of Mexi¬ 
co, not far from the road to Vera Cruz: it became volca¬ 
nic in 1545, and continued for twenty years; since which 
time there has been no appearance of inflammation. 
Though the summit be clothed with perpetual snow, the 
sides are adorned with beautiful forests of cedars, pines, 
and other trees. From Mexico the range extends in a 
N. W. direction towards Cinaloa, and is called the Sierra 
Mada, or Mother Range, and the Shining Mountains, it 
is afterwards, according to the best maps, joined by a ridge 
running N. W. from Louisiana; and after this junction 
passes through the north-west to the proximity of the arc¬ 
tic ocean. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. Tire 
plants that characterize the North American possessions 
of the Spanish crown are, a species of the Indian flg, upon 
which the cochineal insect more particularly delights to 
feed; the true jalap a native of the province of Xalappa, in 
the viceroyalty of Mexico; two trees that yield the fra¬ 
grant gum-resins known in commerce by the names of bal¬ 
sam of Capivi and of Tolu. The shores of the bays of Hon¬ 
duras and Campeachy have been celebrated from their very 
first discovery for their immense forests of mahogany and 
logwood; and the neighbourhood of Guatimala is distin¬ 
guished for its indigo. The guayacum, the sassafras and 
tamarind, the cocoa nut palm, the chocolate nut tree, and 
a variety of others, which are better known as natives of 
the West Indian islands, enrich and adorn these fertile 
provinces. The pine apple grows wild in the woods, and 
the shallow rocky soils are inhabited by the various spe¬ 
cies of aloe and euphorbia. 

Among the most singular animals is the Mexican or 
hunchback dog, a kind of porcupine; and some others de¬ 
scribed by several naturalists. What is called the tiger 
seems a species of panther, and sometimes grows to a great 
size. But Clavigero says that the largest quadruped is the 
tapir, which is amphibious, and in its manners resembles 
the hippopotamus. The bison is found in New Mexico. 
In California there are said to be wild sheep. The birds 
of New Spain are particularly numerous and curious. 

Mineralogy. The mineralogy of the Spanish 
empire in North America is equal, if not superior, to that 
of Peru, and the other southern provinces. Even in the 


580 


SPANISH DOMINIONS. 


northern parts nature has disclosed her treasures: the 
abundance of gold found in the province of Sonora lias 
been already mentioned ; and California is supposed to 
contain rich minerals. The chief silver mines are now to 
the north-west of the capital, where there is a town called 
Lms de Potosi, more than 200 B. miles from Mexico. 
s liese mines are said to have been discovered soon after 
those ol Potosi, 1545; they are in a considerable range of 
mountains, which give source to the river of Panuco. Am- 
ner and asphalt likewise occur in New Spain, as well as 
diamonds, amethysts and turquoises. Copper is said to 
abound in some districts to the west of the capital. 


THE AMERICAN ISLANDS, 


OR 

WEST INDIES. 


THESE islands, so important to commerce, are Cuba, 
St. Domingo, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, all of considera¬ 
ble extent; and followed by the distinguished group called 
the Antilles, Carribbee, or Leeward Islands, but more 
properly by the French, Windward Islands, as being to¬ 
wards the east, the point of the trade wind. To the south 
of this group is Trinidad, a recent English acquisition: to 
the west of which stretch the Leeward Islands of the Span¬ 
iards. In the N. E. of this grand assemblage are the 
Bahama or Lucayos Islands, narrow and barren strips of 
land, formerly frequented by pirates, till subjected to the 
legal power of England; but chiefly remarkable as having 
been the first discovery of Colon. We shall begin with 
the largest, viz. 


CUBA. 


THIS noble island is not less than 700 B. miles in length; 
but the medial breadth does not exceed 70. On his first 
voyage, after exploring the Bahama Isles, Colon discover¬ 
ed Cuba; but he soon abandoned it to proceed to Hayti, 
afterwards called Hispaniola or St. Domingo, where he 

3 c 2 




582 


SAINT DOMINGO. 


expected to find a greater abundance of gold. While His¬ 
paniola was selected as a factory to secure the acquisition 
of gold, it was not certainly known whether Cuba was an 
island, or part of the continent, till 1508, when it was 
circumnavigated by Ocampo; and in 15 11 it was conquer¬ 
ed by three hundred Spaniards under Velasquez. 

The industry of the Spaniards is far from being prover¬ 
bial; yet such is the fertility of Cuba, that it may be re¬ 
garded as a most important and flourishing possession. 
The quantity of sugar is considerable; and the tobacco is 
esteemed of a more exquisite flavour than that of any other 
part of America. This with the other large islands, were 
also called the Great Antilles, and they were also known 
by the name, of the Leeward Islands, in contradistinction to 
the exterior group called Windward Islands . Havanna, the 
capital, supposed to contain 10,000 inhabitants, was built 
in 1519; and was taken in 1669 by Morgan, a celebrated 
buccaneer. It again surrendered to the English in 1761, 
and treasures were found of no small amount. This ex¬ 
tensive island is divided by a chain of mountains passing 
E. and W. The rivers are of short course, but there are 
several excellent harbours, particularly that of the Havanna, 
which is one of the finest in the world. Among the pro¬ 
ducts must also be reckoned ginger, long pepper, mastic, 
cocoa, manioc and aloes. There are mines of excellent 
copper, which supply the other Spanish colonies with do¬ 
mestic utensils; and gold is not unknown in the rivers. 
The forests abound with wild cattle and swine; and among 
the trees are green ebony and mahogany. There is a go¬ 
vernor-general ; and eighteen jurisdictions are governed by 
distinct magistrates. The natural history of this large 
island is very defective, as is the case with all the Spanish 
possessions. 


SAINT DOMINGO. 


IHIS island, the second in the American archipelago, 
«ne-half of which is usurped by the black insurgents, is about 
400 B. miles in length by 100 in breadth. Under the name 
of Hispaniola it was the first Spanish settlement in the new 
world. The French colony derived its origin from a party 


JAMAICA. 


583 


of buccaneers, mostly natives of Normandy, towards the 
middle of the seventeenth century; and the western part 
was formally ceded to France by the peace of Ryswick. 
So industrious and flourishing was this French colony, that 
it was termed the paradise of the West Indies: and accord¬ 
ing to Mr. Edwards, in 1790, the population amounted to 
30,83 l whites, and about 480,000 negro slaves, the mu- 
lattoes, or free people of colour, being supposed to be 
24,000; while the total value of exports in the various ar¬ 
ticles of sugar, coffee, cotton, indigo, molasses, rum, and 
hides, amounted to 171,544,666 livres, being equal to 
4,765,129/. sterling money of Great Britain. 

This invaluable colony is lost to France for ever, by a 
series of the most impolitic, cruel and prefidious conduct, 
the particulars of which must be fresh in the memory of 
every reader. 


JAMAICA. 


THIS island was discovered by Colon, 1494, during his 
second voyage; but was little explored till his fourth and 
last voyage. In 1655 it fell into the hands of the English, 
by whose industry it has become one of the most flourishing 
of the West Indian settlements. In size it is the third 
island in this archipelago, being about 170 B. miles in 
length, by 60 in breadth. St. Jago or Spanish Town is re¬ 
garded as the capital; while Kingston is the chief sea port. 
The number of negroes is computed at 250,000, and the 
whites are probably 20,000, the free negroes and mulat- 
toes 10,000. The chief exports are to Great Britain, Ireland, 
and North America, in sugar, rum, coffee, indigo, ginger, 
and pimento, valued in 1787 at 2,000,000/. The imports 
were computed at a million and a half, and slaves from 
Africa formed a considerable article. There is a poll tax, 
with duties on negroes and rum, yielding more than 
100,000/. annually; and the ordinary expenses of govern¬ 
ment in 1788 were computed at 75,000/. The govern¬ 
ment consists of the captain general or governor; a coun¬ 
cil of twelve, nominated by the crown; and a house of as¬ 
sembly, containing forty-three members, elected by the 
freeholders. The climate, though tempered by the sea 


584 


CARIBBEE ISLANDS. 


breezes, is extremely hot; and the days and nights nearly 
of equal duration. A ridge of mountains, from east to 
west, divides the island into two parts; and the landscape 
often boasts of peculiar beauties. Towards the interior 
are forests, crowned with the blue summits of the central 
ridge. What is called the Blue Mountain Peak rises 7431 
feet above the level of the sea. There are about one hun¬ 
dred rivulets, of which the Black River, running to the 
south, is the most considerable. The bread fruit tree, 
with other useful plants, has been introduced by the exer¬ 
tions of Sir Joseph Banks, than which none can be more 
beneficial, or more worthy of applause. 


PORTO RICO. 


THIS isle, which belongs to Spain, is about 120 P. 
miles in length, by 40 in breadth. Its size and conse¬ 
quence are well known to the possessors, being a fertile, 
beautiful, and well watered country. The chief trade b 
in sugar, ginger, cotton, hides; with some drugs, fruits, 
and sweetmeats: and the northern part is said to contaii 
mines of gold and silver. Porto Rico was discovered hr 
Colon in 1498; and was subjugated by Ponce de Leor, 
the first explorer of Florida, about 1509. The Spanisi 
voyagers and authors, whose imigination magnified eveiv 
feature of the new world, reported the native populatioi 
at 600,000; while perhaps a real enumeration might 
have reduced them to 60,000, if not to 20,000. Accoro 
ing to Raynal the present population does not exceel 
5000, three-fourths of which are slaves. 


THE CARIBBEE ISLANDS. 


THIS range extends from Tobago, in the south, to the 
Virgin islands in the north. The Caribbee islands are o' 
noted fei tility and commercial advantage, the chief posses¬ 
sors being the English and French. Barbadoes, Antigua, 
St. Christopher’s, St. Vincent, Dominica, Grenada, Mont- 
seiat, Nevis, iobago, St. Lucie, and the Virgin Isles, are 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


Extent. THIS division of the new continent ex¬ 
tends southward from the mountainous boundary between 
the provinces of Veragua and Panama, the latter province 
belonging to South America. But the land afterwards as¬ 
cending considerably farther to the north, the length must 
be computed from about 12° of N. lat. to 54° S. lat. and 
yet farther if the Terra del Fuego be comprised. The 
length is at least sixty-six degrees, or 3960 g. miles; while 
the breadth, as already mentioned, is about 2880 g. miles. 

Original Population. The original population 
of this large portion of the earth remains obscure, but 
may most probably have been from Africa, where copper- 
coloured nations with long hair have been recently dis¬ 
closed. The constant trade winds, blowing from east to 
west, could scarcely fail to impel some rash African ma¬ 
riners to the American shores. Others seek the origina¬ 
tion in the N. E. parts of Asia, where the shores of the 
two continents are but 40 miles apart, with numerous isles 
interspersed. 

Religion. The religion of South America is in 
general the Roman Catholic, with the exception of the 
small Dutch territory, and the savage tribes. 

Climate and Seasons. In these extensive re¬ 
gions the seasons vary much. The southern extremity is 
exposed to all the horrors of the antarctic frosts; and Ter¬ 
ra del Puego in the S. iat. of 55° seems exposed to ihe 
almost perpetual winter of Greenland in N. lat. 70°. On 
proceeding towards the north, the great chain of the Andes 
strangely contradict the theories of ancient geographers; 




SOUTH AMERICA. 


too 
O o ij 

the chief inconveniences of this part of the torrid zone be¬ 
ing extreme cold on the mountains, and extreme moisture 
in the plains. On the mountains, winter begins in De¬ 
cember, which in the plains is the first month of summer; 
and a journey of four hours conducts the traveller from 
one season to another. 

In general the confined regions on the west of the Andes 
are dry, the clouds being arrested by their summits; while 
the wide countries on the east of that chain are exposed 
to torrents of rain, from the eastern or trade winds blow¬ 
ing over the Atlantic. In Brazil the rainy season begins 
in March or April, and ends in August, when the spring 
begins, or rather the summer; the distinctions being only 
between wet and dry seasons. 

Lakes. No part of the globe displays so great a 
number of extensive lakes as North America; and the 
southern part of the new continent is perhaps equally re¬ 
markable by their rarity. Many supposed lakes only exist 
during the annual inundations, which are on a far grander 
scale than those of the Ganges, and may be said to deluge 
whole provinces. In the most northern part the Lagoon 
of Maracaybo is remarkable, being a circular bason about 
100 B. miles in diameter, receiving numerous rivers and 
rivulets, and communicating with the sea by a considerable 
creek. The celebrated lake Parima, called also Parana- 
pitinca or the White Sea, is represented by La Cruz as 
more than 100 B. miles in length by 50 in breadth; but 
this is thought to be an exaggeration. 

I he Irkc of I iticaca, in the kingdom of Peru, is regard¬ 
ed as the most important in South America. Llloa’says 
that it is of an oval figure, the circumference about 240 
miles: and the depth 70 or 80 fathoms. 

Rivers. i lie river oi Amazons, or Maranon, is 
celebrated as the most distinguished river, not only in 
South America, but in the whole world. The length may 
be estimated at about 2^00 miles. I be breadth at the 
Portuguese boundary is said to be a league, but it is gene- 
inlly about t\vo miles; and no bottom is found at 103 fa¬ 
thoms. The effect of the tides is perceivable to the dis¬ 
tance of 600 miles. I he banks are generally crowned with 
vast forests of lofty trees, among which are many of a rare 
and medicinal nature. Serpents of prodigious size are 
found in the marshes, and alligators are also common. 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


589 


After it lias received the Shingu, the breadth from shore 
to shore cannot be discovered by the eye. Near its mouth 
the Bore rises from twelve to fifteen feet in height; and 
the noise of this irruption is heard at the distance of two 
leagues. 

The Rio de la Plata, or river of Silver, is the conjunct 
flood of the Paraguay, the Pilcomayo, the Parana, and the 
Urucuay. The main streams are the Paraguay and the 
Parana; and it would seem that the latter is the longest 
and most considerable, rising in the great mine mountains 
of Brazil. This noble river is also studded with numerous 
islands; and Spanish vessels navigate to the town of As¬ 
sumption, about 400 leagues from the sea: its length is 
estimated at 1900 miles. The breadth of the estuary is 
such, that the land cannot be discovered from a ship in the 
middle of the stream. 

The third great river in South America is the Orinoco, 
of a most singular and perplexed course. It rises in the 
small lake of Ipava, N. lat. 5° 5', and enters the Atlantic 
ocean by an extended delta opposite to the isle of Trinidad; 
but the chief estuary is considerably to the S. E. of that 
island. It has been ascertained that there are three com¬ 
munications between this river and the river Amazons; a 
circumstance which, in the possession of an industrious peo¬ 
ple, would open a most extensive inland navigation, and 
render Guiana, or New Andalusia, one of the most flourish¬ 
ing countries in the world. 

Mountains. The mountains of South America 
constitute some of the grandest objects in natural geogra¬ 
phy, being not only the most lofty on the face of the globe, 
but intermixed with volcanoes of the most sublime and ter¬ 
rific description. The extent is also prodigious, the Andes 
stretching in one line from the capes of Isidro and Pilares, 
in the southern extremity of the continent, to the west side 
of the gulf of Darien, a space of not less than 4600 miles, 
as they generally follow the windings of the coast, at the 
medial distance of about one hundred miles. Chimborazo, 
the highest of these mountains, about 100 B. miles to the 
S. of Quito, and about ten miles to the N. of Riobamba, 
was computed to be 20,280 feet above the level of the sea, 
which is about 5000 feet, or one quarter higher than Mont 
Blanc. That part of Chimborazo which is covered with 
perpetual snow is about 2400 feet from the summit. 


590 


SOUTH AMERICA. 


The next in height is supposed to be the volcano call¬ 
ed Cotopashi, estimated at about 18,600 feet, and situated 
about twenty-five miles to the S. E. of Quito. Other 
grand summits are Pachincha, a few miles to the N. E. 
of Quito, the Altar, and Sanga to the S. E. of Chimbora¬ 
zo. These American Alps, clothed with perpetual snow, 
about two degrees to the N. of the equator, are not above 
one quarter their original height, and farther to the south 
they also greatly decrease in elevation. 

A practical German mineralogist, employed for some 
years in the mines of Peru, informs us that the eastern 
spurs of the Andes sometimes present red and green gra¬ 
nite and gneiss, as towards Cordova and Tucuman; but 
the grand chain chiefly consists of argillaceous schistus, 
or various kinds of thick slate, on which, in many places, 
are incumbent strata of limestone, and large masses of 
ferruginous sandstone. Amid the argillaceous schistus, 
the metals sometimes occur in veins of quartz, sometimes 
in alluvial layers of sandstone and iron sand. Near Po- 
tosi are irregular beds of large bullets of granite ; and the 
celebrated mountain, so rich in silver ore, is chiefly com¬ 
posed of a firm yellow argillaceous slate, full of veins of 
ferruginous quartz, in which some of the best ores are 
found. In passing the highest ridge of the Andes, between 
Potosi and Lima, Helms still found argillaceous schistus 
the predominant substance in some places covered with 
alluvial layers of marl, gypsum, limestone, sand, fragments 

of porphyry, and even rock salt j yet rich silver occurs in 
abundance. 


SPANISH DOMINIONS 


IN SOUTH AMERICA. 


Extent and Boundaries. THE possessions of 
Spain in the southern part of America are of prodigious 
extent from the Caribbean sea to the most southern pro¬ 
montory, according to the Spanish geographers; but the 
English maps seem justly to regard the regions to the 
south-east, inhabited by the Tehuels, and other tribes con¬ 
fessedly independent, as excluded from the Spanish domain, 
and of course open to the settlements of any foreign nation. 
The whole length of the Spanish possessions in America 
may thus be computed at more than 5000 g. miles; though 
not equal in extent, yet far superior in every other respect, 
to the Asiatic empire of Russia. On the east the boun¬ 
dary between the Spanish possessions and those of the 
Dutch and Portuguese, is mostly ascertained by ridges, of 
mountains and rivers. 

Government. The Spanish territories are par¬ 
celled into various departments. The grand divisions are, 
the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres; that of Peru, which in¬ 
cludes Chili; and that of New Granada in the north: the 
capital of the first being Buenos Ayres, of the second 
Lima, and of the third Bogota, or Santa Fe de Bogota, N. 
lat. 4°. 

Population. The general population of South 
America being estimated at about 13,000,000, it is proba¬ 
ble that the Spanish possessions contain about 9,000,000. 
The use of spirituous liquors, and the small pox, with ano¬ 
ther endemial disease which acts at intervals like a pesti¬ 
lence, obstruct the increase of the natives. The Spaniards 
and Creoles are far more numerous in New Spain than in 
South America, where it is probable that they do not ex¬ 
ceed 2,000,000. The product of the mines of South Ame¬ 
rica is supposed to be about 4,000,000/. sterling yearly ; and 
the royal revenue perhaps amounts to 800,000/. which is 
mostly absorbed by the expenses. 


592 SPANISH DOMINIONS IN S. AMERICA. 


Manners and Customs. The manners of the 
Spaniards in South America have been illustrated in many 
popular books cf voyages. Among the native nations, the 
Peruvians are by far the most interesting, having in some 
instances advanced nearer to civilization than the Mexicans. 
1 heir buildings erected of stone still remain, while of the 
earthen edifices of the Mexicans, even the ruins have pe¬ 
rished. The government of the Incas, or Peruvian mo- 
Slarchs, was a kind of theocracy, and the inhabitants revered 
a divine descent not claimed by the Mexican sovereigns. 
The religion of the Peruvians was that of love and benefi¬ 
cence; while the Mexicans seem in their cruel rites, to 
have been wholly influenced by the fear of malignant deities. 
The Mexican monarchy was founded by the sword, the 
Peruvian by superiority of wisdom; and the captives taken 
in war were not immolated, but instructed in the arts of 
civilization. Manures and irrigation were not unknown, and 
the great roads between Cuzco and Quito were wonderful, 
when estimated with the other parts of savage America. But 
amidst all these laudable qualities, it is to be regretted that 
superstition led them to sacrifice numerous victims on the 
death of a chief; and a. favourite monarch was sometimes 
followed to the tomb by a thousand slaughtered servants. 

Language. The language of the ruling people in 
Peru was called the Quichua, and it is still cultivated by 
the Spanish clergy, as indispensable in the conversion of 
the natives. The sounds, 6, d , f g-, r, are wanting. The 
grammar of this language, and it is said even that of the 
lehuels, is nearly as variegated and artificial as the Greek. 

Cities. The chief cities in Spanish South Ame¬ 
rica are Lima the metropolis, Buenos Ayres, and Bogota. 
Lima was founded by Pizarro, and is supposed to contain 
54,000 inhabitants, scarcely more than a third part of the 
population of Mexico. The situation is in a pleasant and 
spacious vale, near a small river. The great square con¬ 
tains the viceroy’s palace, and the cathedral. The streets 
are generally paved, and enlivened with little canals led 
from the river; but the houses are low, on account of the 
frequent earthquakes. The churches and convents are 
rich and numerous; and there is an university of some re¬ 
putation. Rain is seldom or never seen, the clouds being 
attracted by the summits of the Andes. The most dread¬ 
ful earthquake seems to have been that of 1747; when the 


SPANISH DOMINIONS IN S. AMERICA. 593 

port of Callao was totally submerged, and of four thousand 
inhabitants only two hundred escaped. 

Buenos Ayres was founded in 1535,.receiving its name 
from the salubrity of the air. The population is supposed 
to be about 33,000. It is the great resort of passengers 
from Spain, who thence cross the country to Potosi, there 
being an uninterrupted post-road, with post-houses, and 
relays of horses and carriages, across the country to 
Peru. Bogota is rarely visited by travellers, and is little 
known. 

Of the other chief towns, Carthagena contains 25,000 
souls; and Potosi about the same number; Popayan above 
20,000; Quito 50,000. The manufactures of Spanish 
South America are inconsiderable. Among the exports are 
sugar, cotton, cocoa, Peruvian bark and Vicuna wool. But 
the chief exports are from the mines. From the official 
registers it appears that the coinage in Spanish America, 
from the first day of January to the last day of December 
1790, was as follows: In gold 2,470,812, and in silver 
25,906,023 piasters. 

Commerce. The number of mines at work in the 
viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres alone, amounts to 30 of gold, 
27 of silver, 7 of copper, 2 of tin, and 7 of lead. 

Since the discontinuance of the galleons, and of the great 
fairs of Panama and Porto Bello, the commerce of Peru 
has been augmented by the arrival of merchant vessels 
from Spain by the way of Cape Horn. As the Spaniards 
have no settlements in Africa, the numerous negroes in 
their American colonies were chiefly supplied by the Dutch, 
and by the English, under what is called the Assiento or 
Contract, settled in the reign of Anne. 

Animal and Vegetable Productions. Though 
horses and cattle were originally unknown to the new con¬ 
tinent, surprising herds have been multiplied from a few 
that were turned loose by the first settlers: the cattle are 
hunted merely on account of the hides, and grow to a great 
size. The great numbers have lately been thinned by the 
thoughtless avarice of the hunters. Horses are also very 
numerous; and mules being indispensable in the alpine 
countries, where they cannot be reared, about eighty thou¬ 
sand are annually sent from the plains of Paraguay to 
Peru. The llama , or more properly runa y or Peruvian 
sheep which resembles a small camel, and will carry any 

3 d 2 


594 SPANISH DOMINIONS IN S. AMEPvICA. 


load under a hundred weight. The vicuna is somewhat 
smaller, with shorter and finer wool. The guanaca, on the 
contrary, is a larger and coarser animal than the runa, and 
chiefly employed in the mining countries, where other 
animals could not pass the precipitous paths. Among the 
ferocious animals are distinguished those called by Buffon 
the jaguar, or tiger; and the cougar, or the American lion. 
As the lions of Africa far exceed those of Paraguay in size 
and ferocity, so the African tigers yield in magnitude to 
those of Paraguay. Dobrizhoffer says, the skin of one killed 
was three ells and two inches in length, or equal to that of 
a large ox. They kill and carry off oxen and horses. In 
the great river Maranon there appears to be a species of 
hippopotamus. In the Alps towards Tucuman, the condor, 
the largest bird of the Vulture tribe, is not unfrequent. The 
ostrich is also found in the wide plains of Paraguay. 

The vicinity of the coast produces many of the tropical 
fruits and vegetables, such as the cabbage palm, the cocoa 
nut, the chocolate nut, the cotton shrub, the pine apple, 
the canna, amomum, turmeric, plantain, and sugar cane. 
But in the high plain of Quito, and upon the sides of the 
Andes, perhaps the best known and most generally interest¬ 
ing of the trees are, the several species of cinchona, from 
which that valuable medicine the Peruvian or Jesuits’ bark 
is procured ; and a kind of coffee is met with in the moun¬ 
tainous groves of the interior, whose berries are applied to 
the same use as the cultivated species. No less than twem 
ty-four species of pepper. The tobacco and jalap are found 
in the groves at the feet of the Andes. 

Minerals. The mineralogy of these extensive 
regions is universally celebrated as the most important in 
the world. In most accounts the mines of silver have been 
described at great length, while Brazil is considered as the 
chief country of American gold. But the noblest metal 
also abounds in the Spanish possessions here, as well as in 
Mexico. Near the village of Angamarca, in the jurisdiction 
of Latacunga, particularly was a mine of prodigious value. 
Gold is also found in the sand of many rivers that flow into 
the Maranon. 

The celebrated mountain of Potosi has presented, for 
two centuries and a half, inexhaustible treasures of silver. 
This mountain, of a conic form, is about 20 B. miles in cir¬ 
cumference, and perforated by more than three hundred 


SPANISH DOMINIONS IN S. AMERICA. 595 


rude shafts. Of a peculiar dark reddish colour, this moun¬ 
tain rises void of all vegetation, blasted by the numerous 
furnaces, which in the night form a grand spectacle. This 
surprising mine was discovered, 1545, by Hualpa, a Peru¬ 
vian, who in pursuing some chamoys pulled up a bush, and 
beheld under the root that amazing vein of silver afterwards 
called la rica or the rich. He shared this discovery with 
his friend Huanca, who revealed it to a Spaniard his mas¬ 
ter; and the mine was formally registered 21st April, 1545. 

Another celebrated mine is that of mercury, indispensa¬ 
ble in amalgamating the precious metals. While Mexico 
is supplied from Spain, Peru has the native product. 

Platina is chiefly found in the mines of Choco and Bar- 
bacoas, in the viceroyalty of New Granada. Tin according 
to Helms is found at Chayanza and Paria; and there are 
also several mines of copper and lead. The chief copper 
mine was at Aroa; but the colonies are mostly supplied 
from the mines at Cuba. In the time of the Incas, emer¬ 
alds were also common, chiefly on the coast of Manta, 
where it is said that there are mines which the Indians 
will not reveal, as they must encounter the labour of work¬ 
ing them. 

Natural Curiosities. The natural curiosities 
of all descriptions are numerous and grand. The volcanoes, 
the Andes, the intersection of the chain by the Lauricocha, 
or false Maranon, and numerous cataracts, one of twelve 
hundred feet, are among the various scenes of these re¬ 
gions which are variegated with every feature of sublimity. 

PORTUGUESE. 


THE dominions in South America, held by the small 
kingdom of Portugal, extend from the frontier of Dutch 
Guiana, lat. 3° N. to Port St. Pedro, S. lat 32° being about 
2100 g. miles: and the breadth, from Cape St. Roque to 
the farthest Portuguese settlement on the river of Ama¬ 
zons, called St. Paul de Omaguas, equals, if it does not ex¬ 
ceed that extent. This vast territory, rivalling the empires 
of antiquity, is still more unknown than the Spanish posses¬ 
sions: as the greedy hound that has more than he can eat, 
hides the surplus. The chief city of Brazil was formerly 


596 PORTUGUESE DOMINIONS IN S. AMERICA. 

San Salvador, which has since yielded to Rio Janeiro. The 
others are Para and Caytanear the estuary of the Maranon, 
with a few small settlements on that river; Parnamboco, Ser- 
gippe, Paraiba, Villa Grande, See. the chief settlements of 
the Portuguese being only thinly scattered along the shores. 

“ But all the provinces are growing fast into opulence 
and importance. They manufactured of late several of the 
most necessary articles for their own consumption ; and 
their produce was so considerable that the balance of trade 
began to be already in their favour. The population of this 
large portion of South America has not been accurately 
detailed; but it would seem that the Portuguese and their 
descendants cannot amount to half a million, while the na¬ 
tives may be three or four millions. The diamond mines 
belong exclusively to the crown: and one-fifth of the gold 
is exacted. There are also numerous taxes and imposi¬ 
tions, which instead of enlarging the revenues are the grand 
causes of its diminution; and the expenses of government 
consume about one-third of the million sterling, which Bra¬ 
zil is supposed to yield to Portugal. The convents and mo¬ 
nasteries are numerous, and the manufactories rare. La¬ 
bour is chiefly performed by slaves, about 20,000 negroes 
being annually imported; even the monks and clergy keep 
black slaves. The indigenes are said to be irreclaimable 
savages, under the middle size, muscular and active; of a 
light brown complexion, with straight black hair and long 
dark eyes. They chiefly subsist apart, on the coast between 
Janeiro and San Salvador.” 

1 he harbour of Rio Janeiro is capacious and excellent; 
and surrounded by a fertile country. It is protected by the 
castle of Santa Cruz, erected on a huge rock of granite. On 
the west is the city of St. Sebastian, commonly called Rio 
de Janeiro, built on a tongue of land, the hills and rocks 
behind being crowned with woods, convents, houses, and 
churches. On a small isle are a dock yard, magazines, 
and naval store-houses. The streets are generally straight 
and well paved. Water is supplied by an aqueduct on the 
Roman plan. \et the situation of this beautiful city is said 
to be unhealthy, owing to the exhalations from the primi¬ 
tive inland forests. There are manufactories of sugar, rum, 
and cochineal; and several districts produce cotton, indigo, 
coffee, cacao or chocolate, rice, pepper, and the noted Bra- 


FRENCH DOMINIONS IN S. AMERICA. 597 


ziiian tobacco. The red or Brazil wood is the property of 
the crown. 

Mines, Concerning the celebrated mines of Bra¬ 
zil there is little information. The diamond mines are 
near the little river of Milboverde, not far from Villa No¬ 
va do Principe, in the province of Serro de Frio. This 
singular substance is not certainly known to be produced 
in any other part of the world, except Plindostan; but the 
diamonds of Brazil are not of so fine a water, being of a 
brownish obscure hue. In the northern provinces of Bra¬ 
zil there are numerous herds of wild cattle, which are 
slaughtered for the sake of the hides. 

Vegetable Productions. The esculent plants 
are such as are common to all the tropical regions of Ame¬ 
rica, among which may be distinguished the plantain, the 
banana, the cocoa nut, the chocolate nut, the yam, pota- 
toe, cassava, together with numerous species of melons 
and gourds. Of fruits the number is scarcely to be reckon¬ 
ed ; the principal of them are common to the East and 
West Indies. The warm aromatic plants that are found 
here are the ginger, the turmeric, several species of pep¬ 
per, American coffee, capsicum or Guinea pepper, and 
the wild cinnamon or canella. Several medicinal plants 
of high estimation, grow here spontaneously and in abun¬ 
dance; these are the contrayerva, the Indian pink, the 
mechoacan, the jalap, the tree yielding the gum elemi, 
and the guaiacum. Woods for ornamental cabinet work, 
or for the use of the dyers, which are at present chiefly 
furnished by the Dutch, French, and English colonists of 
Guiana and the W. Indies, might be procured in equal 
perfection and variety from Brazil* 

FRENCH. 

THE French settlements in Guiana were first formed 
about the year 1635, and extend from the mouth of a small 
river called Amano, W. to another called Aracara E. con¬ 
taining 350 B. miles in length, by 240 in breadth. The 
chief town is on a small isle called Cayano, whence the 
whole territory is commonly styled Cayenne. The soil 
and climate in general seem unexceptionable; but the si- 


598 DUTCH DOMINIONS IN S. AMERICA. 


tuation of the town being ill chosen, in a swampy isle, its 
disadvantages have been laxly ascribed to the whole pos¬ 
session. In the town are about 1200 white inhabitants, 
exclusive of the garrison. The Cayenne pepper is a no¬ 
ted product of this country, and other products are sugar, 
cocoa, vanilla, and indigo, i he country is most noted 
as the place whither the French government has banished 
conspirators and other criminals. 


DUTCH. 


THE Dutch possessions in Guiana commenced in 1663 : 
but four years afterwards they were expelled by the Eng¬ 
lish, whose descendants form part of the colony resumed 
by the Dutch in 1676. Dutch Guiana is to the N. W. of 
the French settlement, and is often called Surinam from a 
river of that name, on which the capital is situated. The 
length S. E. to N. YY. is about 350 B. miles, along the 
shores of the Atlantic: but the breadth is only 160. The 
chief towns are Paramaribo on the west bank of the Suri¬ 
nam, and new Middlebur^ near the N. W. extremity of 
the colony: Demerara is a settlement on a river of that 
name, i he white inhabitants of the capital are computed 
at 1800. r i he largest river is the Esquivo. The Berbiz 
and Coientin are also considerable rivers. The wet and 
dry season alternate, each for three months. The natives 
are of a reddish brown or copper colour, like the other 
American tribes. Some are cannibals; but the Arrowaks 
aie distinguished not only by elegance of form, but by 
mildness of disposition. I hey believe in a supreme deity 
and in inferior malign spirits called Yawahoos. 

All the usual tropical productions, except those that de¬ 
light in dry and sandy tracts, are found here in full per- 
fection. 

Besides the common species of palms, there are two 
which are reckoned almost peculiar to this part of Ameri- 

u?’ r tllese ’ C£ dl e d the cokarito palm, is remarka¬ 

ble for its hard splintery wood, of which the small poison¬ 
ed arrows are constructed. The other, the manicole palm, 
grows only in the deepest and most fertile soil, where it 


ISLANDS BELONGING TO S. AMERICA. 599 

attains the height of fifty feet, while its stern in the thick¬ 
est part is scarcely nine inches in diameter. The annotta 
seems to be here in its favourite climate, as appears from 
its magnitude of growth and brilliancy of colour. The 
quassia, whose intense bitterness is become of late but 
too familiar to English palates, and the simarouba, a me¬ 
dicinal drug of great efficacy; nor among the materials 
which the healing art derives from this country ought we 
to omit the mention of the ricinus or castor oil nut, the 
cassia, the palm oil, the cowhage, the balsam of capivi, 
and ipecacuanha. An herbaceous plant called troolies 
grows here, whose leaves are the largest of any yet known, 
they lie on the ground, and have been known to attain the 
almost incredible length of thirty-feet, by three feet in 
width: most of the houses are thatched with it, and it will 
last some years without requiring repair. 


ISLANDS BELONGING TO S. AMERICA. 


THESE shall be traced from the west towards the east. 
The isle of Juan Fernandez, so called from the first dis¬ 
coverer, is only about four leagues in length, with an an¬ 
choring place on the northern coast, which is diversified 
with many beautiful kinds of trees. It has been celebrated 
in the voyage of Anson. 

I here are two remarkable archipelagoes towards the 
southern extremity of this continent. The most remark¬ 
able isle in one is that of Chiloe, about 140 B. miles in 
length, by 30 in breadth. The chief harbour is Chacao on 
the N. and at Culbuco there is a corregidor, nominated by 
the president of Chili: there are also two monasteries and 
a church. The isle of Chiloe is said to be well peopled with 
Spaniards, mulattoes, and converted savages. In the se¬ 
cond archipelago, which approaches the antarctic frosts, 
is the island of St. Martin, in which there seem to be some 
Spanish settlements or factories; and not far to the S. be¬ 
gins that broken series of wintry islands, called the Terra 
del Fuego, from two or more volcanoes, which vomit 
flames amidst the dreary wastes of ice. In the map of La 
Cruz the Terra del Fuego is divided by narrow straits in¬ 
to eleven islands of considerable size. This dreary region 


600 ISLANDS BELONGING TO S. AMERICA. 


is not however so completely oppressed by winter, as has 
by some been imagined, the vales being often verdant, and 
enlivened with brooks, while a few trees adorn the sides of 
the hills. The isle called Statenland is divided from the 
Terra del Fuego by the strait of Le Maire. Here also cap¬ 
tain Cook observed wood and verdure. So much more se¬ 
vere is the cold in the antarctic region, that these coun¬ 
tries only in lat. 55°, or that of the north of England, are 
more frozen than Lapland, in lat. 70°. 

To the N. E. are the islands called Falkland Islands. 
In 1764 Commodore Byron was sent to take possession 
of these islands, which were undoubtedly first discovered 
by the English; and a little establishment was made at a 
place called Port Egmont, but being found of little or no 
value they were in a few years ceded to Spain. The soil 
is marshy, and even in summer there are perpetual storms; 
and the Spaniards seem only to retain a small factory in 
the north. 


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AFRICA 


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AFRICA. 


Extent.—Original Inhabitants .— Religion. — Climate ._- 

Rivers. — Mountains. — Deserts. 

THIS continent is, after Asia and America, the third 
In size; but in political and ethical estimation is the last 
and meanest of the four great divisions of the earth. From 
the southern extremity to the Mediterranean are about 70 
degrees of latitude, or 4200 g. miles. The breadth, from 
18° west to 51° east, may be assumed on the equator at 
4140 g. miles. The central parts on the south appear to 
be the native regions of the negroes, whose colour, features, 
and hair distinguish them from all the other races of man¬ 
kind. In the northern parts there have been many succes¬ 
sions of inhabitants, the Egyptians and Abyssinians being 
of Arabian extract; while further to the west the Cartha¬ 
ginians passed from Syria: and according to Sallust, who 
refers to Punic manuscripts, other maritime parts were 
peopled by the Medes, Persians, and Armenians: both 
which appear to have been, in all ages, radically distinct 
from the negro race, from whom they were divided by the 
great desert of Zaara; and in the eastern parts the latter 
were yet farther repelled by the Arabian colony which set¬ 
tled in Abyssinia. 

The Romans appear to have explored the north of 
Africa as far as the river Niger; and they established flou¬ 
rishing colonies in many parts. Upon the fall of their em¬ 
pire, the Vandals of Spain passed into Africa, A. D. 429, 
and established a kingdom which lasted till A. D. 535. In 

3 E 




602 


AFRICA. 


the following century the Mahometan Arabs subdued the 
north of Africa; and under the name of Moors constitute 
a great part of the present population. 

Religion. The ruling religion of this continent is 
the Mahometan, which has unfortunately penetrated farther 
in the interior than was at first conceived; and has present¬ 
ed a great obstacle to such travellers as, being unaware of 
this circumstance, have neglected the disguise and simula¬ 
tion, indispensable amidst such a fanatic and intolerant 
race. The climate , which in the north is intensely hot, is 
rather moderate in the southern extremity, the antarctic 
cold being more powerful than that of the other pole. In 
the centre it would appear that there is a prodigious ridge 
ol mountains, extending from those of Kong in the west 
to those of Kumri or of the moon, and those of Abyssinia 
in the east; the whole range being about N. lat. 10°. And 
from this another chain seems to extend, about long. 30° 
east from Greenwich, in a southern direction. 

Rivers. The chief river hitherto discovered is the 
Nile., which rises in the Gebel el Kumr, or mountains of 
the moon, in a district called Donga, N« lat. 8°. It is 
first known by the name of Rahr el Abiad, or the White 
River; and about lat. 16° is joined by the Bahr el Azrek, 
or the Blue River; the former tinged, the latter clear. The 
comparative course ol the Nile may be estimated at about 
2000 B. miles, thus nearly rivalling the lo-ngest Asiatic 
rivers: and it is at any rate only supposed to be exceeded 
by the Ob, Kian Ku, and Hoan Ho; as it is by the Mara- 
non, and probably by the Missouri. The Nile forms some 
considerable cataracts, the chief being that of Geanadil in 
Nubia, before it gains the level of Egypt, after passing 
some rapids to the S. of Syene. The other chief rivers 
are the Niger, and the Gir, the course of each being pro¬ 
bably about 1000 B. miles. Those of Senegal and'Gam¬ 
bia are also considerable. In the southern parts the Zahior 
Larbela oi Congo, and the Zambezi of Mocaranga, are the 
most considerable yet known. 

Mountains. The mountains of Atlas attracted 
the particular observation of the ancients, who fabled that 
they supported the firmament; and derived from them the 
celebiated appellations ci the Atlantic Ocean, and the At¬ 
lantic Islands. So far as the materials will admit, the 
Alias may be considered as extending from Cape Geer on 


AFRICA. 


603 


the Atlantic ocean in a N. E. direction, and giving source 
to many rivers flowing N. and S. till it expire in the king¬ 
dom of Tunis. 

Along the western shores of the Arabian Gulf extends 
a celebrated ridge of red granite, which supplied the fa¬ 
mous obelisks of Egypt. The high mountains of Abyssi¬ 
nia seem to branch from the great central chain already 
mentioned, or rather from its junction with that on the west 
of the Red Sea, and to terminate about lat. 25°, as the high 
mountains on the north of the European colony ol the Caj/e 
pass E. and W. and the Orange River rising from their 
northern base is supposed to follow a N. W. and \V. di¬ 
rection. 

Deserts. But the most striking feature of Africa 
consists in the immense deserts which pervade many parts 
of that continent. Of these the chief is that called Zuara , 
or the Desert, by eminence, stretching from the shores of 
the Atlantic, with few interruptions, to the confines of 
Egypt, a space of more than forty-five degrees, or about 
2500 g. miles, by a breadth of twelve degrees, or 7 20 g. 
miles. This ocean of sand defies every exertion of human 
power or industry; but it is interspersed with various 
islands of different sizes, of which Fezzan is the chief 
which has yet been explored. 

In arranging the following brief description of Africa, 
we shall begin with that of Abyssinia, as it is the chief na¬ 
tive power, so far as hitherto discovered. 


ABYSSINIA. 


Extent. THIS kingdom which exceeds in anti¬ 
quity and stability any other of the African states, extends 
about eleven degrees in length, from north to south, that 
is, about 660 geographical miles. The medial breadth is 
about eight degrees of longitude, in lat. 10°, or 572 g. 
miles. On the east the chief boundary is the Red Sea: 
and it is divided from the kingdom of Adel by an ideal 
line: on the south mountains and deserts seem to part it 
from Gingiro and Alaba, while on the west and north, 
mountains and forests constitute the barriers towards Kor- 
dofan and Sennaar. It is divided into provinces, of which 
Tigri is remarkable for the transit of commerce to the 
Arabian gulf; Gojam for the sources of the Astapus or 
fabled Nile of the Abyssinians; and Dembea for a noted 
lake, and Gondar the capital of the monarchy. 

Original Population. It seems sufficiently es- 
, a b v ssi n i a was peopled at a very early pe¬ 

riod, by a colony from the opposite shores of Arabia, as 
the people though darker, still retain Arabian features. As 
the Arabs impute every thing marvellous to Solomon, so 
these their descendants, in frequent habits of intercourse 
with them have adopted the same ideas, which are strength¬ 
ened by religious fable and tradition. Hence the Abyssi¬ 
nian kings claim a descent from that monarch, in the same 
mode of reasoning as the Arabs deduce the noble genea¬ 
logy of their steeds from the stalls of Solomon. In the 
sixteenth century they carried on some trade with Ceylon, 
and the Neguz, or king of Abyssinia, conquered the Ara¬ 
bian monarchy of the Ilomorites in Yemen; and a Roman 
ambassador appeared in the royal city of Axume. 





ABYSSINIA. 


605 


. Religion, &c. The religion is the Christian, being 
derived from the Greek church A. D. 333. The govern- 
merit is absolute and hereditary, but with a kind of election 
in the royal family; and the king is saluted with prostra¬ 
tion. A striking and romantic singularity was, that the 
princes were educated on a lofty and solitary mountain, a 
practice long since abandoned.—Concerning the population 
of this country there seems no authentic evidence. By 
Bruce s account it is extremely difficult to raise the royal 
army above thirty thousand: yet in so barbarous a state it 
might be concluded that every tenth person joins the army, 
but so thin a population is incredible.—The royal revenues 
consist of the rude products of the various provinces, the 
use of money being unknown, though gold be found in the 
sand of the rivers. One of the chief articles is cattle, 
which are numerous, and sold at a low price. 

Manners and Customs. The natives are of a 
dark olive complexion; and the dress a light robe, bound 
with a sash, the head being covered with a kind of turban. 
The houses are of a conic form, meanly built of clay, and 
covered with thatch; and even the churches are of a round 

form encircled with a portico.-Christianity seems to 

hold but a slight influence over the manners and morals, 
and the priests are little respected. Even religion some¬ 
times bends before the influence of climate, and polygamy 
is not unknown among these Christians, the kings in par¬ 
ticular having frequently many wives and concubines.- 

The only meal is commonly in the evening, and the ab¬ 
stinence of lent is carefully preserved. The common be¬ 
verages are mead and a kind of beer.-The neguz or 

king is considered as the sole proprietor of the land, while 

private property is restricted to moveable goods.-The 

language is regarded as an ancient offspring of the Arabic, 
and is divided into various dialects. It is probably allied 
to the Coptic, the Egyptians passing from the north of an¬ 
cient Arabia, and the Abyssinians from the south. 

Cities. The chief city in modern times is Gon- 
dar, situated upon a hill. According to Bruce it contains 
ten thousand families, that is about fifty thousand souls. 
The palace, or rather house of the neguz, is flanked with 
square towers, from the summit of which was a view of 
the southern country, as far as the lake of Tzana or Dem- 
bea.—Axum, the ancient capital, is still known by ex- 

3 e 2 






606 


ABYSSINIA. 


tensive ruins, among which are many obelisks of granite, 
but without hieroglyphics. The other towns are few and 

unimportant.-The manufactures and commerce are of 

small consequence, the latter being chiefly confined to 
Masua on the Red sea. 

Climate and Seasons. The climate is attem¬ 
pered by the mountainous nature of the country. From 
April to September there are heavy rains; and in the dry 
season of the six succeeding months the nights are cold. 
Abyssinia is one of the most mountainous and precipi¬ 
tous countries in the world; but in a few vales the soil is 

black and fertile.-The chief river is the Bahr el Azrek, 

or Abyssinian Nile, which has a spiral origin like the 
Orinoco. The chief spring is in a small hilloc, situated 
in a marsh. The sources of the real Nile or Bahr el Abiad, 
in the alps of Kumri, remain to be explored. Receiving 
no auxiliary streams on its long progress through Egypt, 
the Nile is singularly narrow, and shallow, when compared 
with other rivers of far shorter course. Two other rivers 
the Hanazo and the Hawash, flow in an opposite direction, 
towards the entrance of the Red sea, but the first is said 
to be lost in the sands of Adel. 

Lakes. The chief lake is that of Tzana, also called 
Dembea, from a circumjacent province. This lake is per¬ 
vaded by the Nile in its circular progress, as the lake of 
Parima by the Orinoco, being about 6Q B. miles in length 
by half that breadth: but the extent differs greatly in the 
dry and wet seasons. 

\ EGETABLE AND ANIMAL PRODUCTIONS. The 

sycamore fig, the tamarind, the date, the coffee, a large 
tree used in boat-building, called by Bruce, rack, and two 
species of acacia, though probably not the principal trees, 
are almost the only ones that have hitherto been described. 
I he arborescent euphorbiae are found on some of the dry 
mountains. A shrub, called in the language of the coun¬ 
try, wooginoos, is celebrated by the British traveller for its 
medicinal virtues, in dysenteries. A large esculent herba¬ 
ceous plant analogous to the banana, is largely cultivated 
by the natives as a substitute for bread. The papyrus is 
found herein shallow plashes as in Egypt; and the trees 
that yield the balsam of Gilead, and the myrrh, are re¬ 
presented by the above mentioned traveller as natives of 
Abyssinia. 




ABYSSINIA. 


60 7 


The horses are small but spirited, as usual in alpine 
countries. Cattle and buffaloes are numerous. Among 
wild animals are the elephant, rhinoceros, lion, panther; 
and it is said the giraff or Camelopardalis. The hyena is 
also frequent, and singularly bold and ferocious, so as even 
to haunt the streets of the capital in the night. There are 
also wild boars, gazelles or antelopes, and numerous tribes 
of monkeys. The hippopotamus and crocodile swarm in 
the lakes and rivers. Among the birds is the golden eagle 
of great size, but water fowl are rare. The most remark¬ 
able insect is a large fly, from whose sting even the lion 

flies with trepidation.-Gold is found in the sand of the 

rivers. Fossil salt is found on the confines of Tigri. It 
is said that there are no gems, and that even the royal dia¬ 
dem is decorated with imitations. 



EGYPT. 


Extent, &c. THIS country, celebrated from the 
earliest ages of antiquity, and recently a distinguished scene 
of British valour, both by sea and land, is about 500 miles 
in length from north to south; and, including the greater 
and lesser Oasis, about half that breadth. But this appear¬ 
ance is merely nominal; Egypt being in fact a narrow vale 
on both sides of the river Nile; bounded by parallel ridges 
of mountains or hills. It seems to have been originally 
peopled from the northern parts of Arabia, or from Syria; 
the Egyptians and Abyssinians having been in all ages 
wholly distinct from the native nations of Africa. A late 
intelligent traveller remarks that “ a strong resemblance 
may be traced between the form of visage in the modern 
Copts, and that presented in the ancient mummies, paint¬ 
ings and statues. Their complexion, like that of the Arabs, 
is of a dusky brown; and is represented of the same colour 
in the paintings in the tombs of Thebes.” 

Religion, See. 1 he ruling religion in Egypt is 
the Mahometan; but there are many Christian Copts who 
have their priests and monasteries. The government is at 
present unsettled, but will probably return to the aristocra¬ 
cy of the Beys and Mamlukes. Mr. Browne estimates the 
population of Egypt at two millions and a half; of whom 
the city of Cairo may contain 300,000. The revenue un¬ 
der the Beys might perhaps be about one million sterling. 

IVIanners and Customs, &c. A general simila¬ 
rity pervades the manners of Mahometan countries, as the 
Koran regulates most springs of human life: the fanaticism 
against the Franks or Europeans was extreme, but may 
perhaps be somewhat moderated by the recent terror of 
their arms. The Copts ar« an ingenious people, and have 




EGYPT. 


609 


gieat skill in business; whence they are generally employ¬ 
ed by the Mahometans as writers and accomptants.—— 
1 he heat of the climate enforces an abstemious diet; and 
the houses even at Cairo are mostly miserable dirty hovels. 
' ^ * ie common people are disgustingly filthy in their 

persons. But in the classes somewhat more at ease the 
Coptic women have interesting features) large black eyes; 
and, though of short stature) have often elegant shapes.— 
The Coptic language is now only known in manuscripts, 
the Arabic being universally used. 

Cities. The chief city is Cairo, or in the oriental 
enunciation Kahira. This celebrated metropolis is on the 
east side of the Nile, connected by two suburbs with the 
river. The population is already mentioned. The streets 
are narrow in order to guard against the sun; and there is 
an interior wide canal styled the Chalige, the stench of which 
is occasionally intolerable, though the chief street pass 
along its shore. The principal mosk is ornamented with 
pillars of marble, and Persian carpets, and has a library of 
manuscripts. There are many reservoirs for water, public 
baths, and bazars or markets, where each trade has its al¬ 
lotted quarter. The houses are mostly of sand stone from 
the mountain behind; and are sometimes three stories high 
with flat roofs. The harams, or apartments of the wo¬ 
men, are expensively furnished ; but those of the men neat 
and plain. On Friday a mosk without the walls is frequent¬ 
ed by the ladies as a pilgrimage of pleasure. There are 
light boats, like Venetian gondolas, used on the increase of 
the Nile; and among the amusements are dancing girls, 
and rope-dancers; the chief games being chess, and Polish 
drafts. On solemn occasions fire-works are exhibited. 

Next in consequence are Alexandria, Rosetta or Raschid, 
and Damiata. Upper Egypt no longer boasts of a Thebes; 
and even Girgi, formerly the capital of this part, begins 
to decline. 

Commerce. Though Egypt has ceased to be the 
centre of oriental trade, and the granary of Rome, yet the 
delta still exports great quantities of rice; and Upper Egypt 
supplies some cargoes of wheat. Flax is sent to Syria, and 
coffee and black slaves to Constantinople. Alexandria was 
the chief seat of European trade, which thence passed by 
Raschid to Cairo. Particular exports were carthamus and 
senna; and about eight hundred bales of European broad 



610 


EGYPT. 


cloth were imported. The trade of Damiata is of small 
consequence. 

Climate. The climate of Egypt is well known to 
be peculiar, rain being a most uncommon phenomenon. 
The heat is also extreme, particularly from March to No¬ 
vember; while the cool season or a kind of spring extends 
through the other months.—The chief malady seems to be 
a weakness of the eyes, and blindness is very common in 
Egypt.—The plague has been erroneously supposed to ori¬ 
ginate from Ethiopia, where it is quite unknown; and in 
Egypt it is supposed to be always imported from Constan¬ 
tinople. The extreme heat stops it here, as effectually as 
the cold in other countries. 

Of far the greater part of Egypt the aspect is that of a 
narrow fertile vale, pervaded by the Nile, and bounded on 
either side by barren rocks and mountains. The towns 
and cultivation are chiefly on the eastern bank; behind 
which are vast ranges of mountains extending to the Ara¬ 
bian gulf, abounding with marble and porphyry, but almost 
destitute of water, and only inhabited by Bedouins. On 
the west the hills lead to a vast sandy desert, where are the 
two Oases, a name applied to islands situated in sand. Ex¬ 
cept in the Delta the lands are generally watered by ma¬ 
chines. According to a late traveller, the soil in general 
is so rich as to require no manure. It is a pure black mould 
free from stones, and of a very tenacious and unctuous na¬ 
ture. From Cairo to Assuan, or Syene, a distance of about 
360 miles, the agriculture is of the simplest kind, the chief 
article being wheat, with barley for the horses; oats being 
scarcely known in Asia or Africa. In the delta rice is the 
chief grain, with maize and lentils. The lands chiefly be¬ 
long to the government or to the mosks. 

Rivers. The only river of Egypt is the Nile, al¬ 
ready described in the general view of Africa. Its great¬ 
est breadth, even here, is about one-third of a mile; and 
the depth about twelve feet. The water is muddy; when 
it overflows, of a dirty red; and cloudy even in April and 
May. The river begins to rise about the 19th of June, 
and it ceases in October. 

Lakes. There are several extensive lakes in the 
northern parts of Egypt, the largest being that of Menzala 
which communicates with the sea by one or two outlets. 
Next is that of Berelos, followed by that of Elko. The 


EGYPT. 


611 


lake of Mareotis, on the south of Alexandria, has become 
almost dry. The Natron Lakes must not be forgotten, 
being so called from their production of natron or mineral 
alkali. 1 hey are situated in the desert near a remarkable 
channel, supposed to have been anciently a branch of the 
Nile, and still called the Bahr Belame, or river without 
water. 

Mountains. The mountains have been already 
described as ranging along the banks of the Nile, but 
chiefly between that river and the Red Sea. 

Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
lotus and papyrus have always been the appropriate deco¬ 
rations of the god of the Nile: the former of these is a 
species of water lily, which at the retreat of the inundation 
covers all the canals and shallow pools with its broad round 
leaves, among which are its cup-shaped blossoms of pure 
white, or cxrulean blue, reposing with inimitable grace on 
the surface of the water. The papyrus, sacred to litera¬ 
ture, after having long vanished from the borders of the 
Nile, has at length been again recognised on its banks and 
in the shallow plashes of the Delta. The arum colocasia 
of ancient fame is still cultivated in Egypt for its large es¬ 
culent roots. The Egyptian sycamore fig, the date palm, 
the pistachia, the oriental plane, and the bead tree, adorn 
the shore, and are cultivated in the vicinity of most of the 
towns. The cypress overshadows the burial grounds, and 
the caperbush roots itself in the ruins of Egyptian, Greek, 
and Roman civilization. The senna, the mimosa nilotica, 
and the henne, the almond, the orange, pomegranate, fig, 
peach, apricot, the plantain, sugar-cane, and cotton, are 
cultivated here with great assiduity and success. 

The animals of Egypt have been repeatedly described. 
A French naturalist seems recently to have demonstrated 
from the size of the bones, and other circumstances, that 
the noted ibis of the ancients was not a kind of stork, as 
commonly conceived, but a curlew. 

Between Egypt and Abyssinia is an extensive tract, 
about 600 miles in length, and 500 in breadth, by the an- 
cient§ styled Ethiopia, but more precisely by the Arabian 
geographers called Nubia. The greatest part of it is oc¬ 
cupied by wild deserts on the east and west; but on the 
Nile are two states which Bruce represents as peopled by 
a deceitful and ferocious race. 


MAHOMETAN STATES 


IN THE NORTH. 


Tripoli, — Tu?iis, — Algier, — Morocco, 


THESE are Tripoli, Tunis, Algier, and Morocco. Of 
these Tripoli is most extensive, and the least known. The 
territories reach from the gulf of Cabes, the lesser Syrtis 
of antiquity, to the confines of Egypt, being chiefly the 
Africa proper, and Lybia of the ancients: but a great part 
is desert. Tripoli does not appear to be ancient. It was 
besieged by the Egyptians, A. D. 877, and A. D. 1050. 
In 1146 it was seized by the Normans from Sicily, who 
held this coast till 1159. The power of the Turks is re¬ 
cent, only dating from 1514, when Barbarossa seized Al¬ 
gier; but it has continued more peculiarly at Tripoli, where 
the Bey was considered as immediately subject to the Porte, 
a Turkish Pasha superintending his conduct; and the com¬ 
bined taxations have effectually ruined the country. The 
town of Tripoli is in a low situation, but to the S. are plan¬ 
tations of date trees and verdant hills, which relieve the 
tameness of the scene. It is in a state of rapid decay, 
scarcely four miles in circumference, and thinly peopled; 
the ancient castle, though still the residence of the reign¬ 
ing family being in a ruinous condition. There are olive 
and date trees, white thorn, and Spanish broom; but the 
fields of grain are few and scanty. Towards Mesurarta 
the vegetation is more luxuriant; but of the ancient Cyrene 
an interesting spot, there is no recent account. 




MAHOMETAN STATES IN THE NORTH. 61 


Next on the west is T'unis 5 the central region of northern 
Africa, the western part of the proper Africa of antiquity, 
and formerly the chief seat of Carthaginian power. In the 
middle ages Tripoli was subject to Tunis, which was seized 
by Barbarossa in 1533. The chief river is the Mejerda, 
the Bagrada, of classical repute. The cattle are small and 
slender, and the horses have degenerated. The sheep of 
Zaara are as tall as fallow deer. There are lions, panthers, 
hyenas, chakals, and other ferocious animals. The ma¬ 
nufactures are velvets, silks, linen, and red caps worn by 
the common people. In general the Tunisians are renown¬ 
ed as the most polite and civilized among the Mahometans 
of Africa. The town of Tunis is about three miles in cir¬ 
cumference, containing about ten thousand houses, or per¬ 
haps 50,000 souls. The chief exports seem to be woollen 
stuffs, red caps, gold-dust, lead, oil, Morocco leather: and 
the commerce with France was considerable. 

Algier may be regarded as the last Mahometan state on 
the Mediterranean, for Morocco is chiefly extended along 
the Atlantic. In the thirteenth century Africa was first di¬ 
vided into those petty royalties, which still subsist with few 
variations. In 1514 Barbarossa seized Algier, which after¬ 
wards became a noted seat of pirates. This city is not 
above a mile and a half in circuit, while the inhabitants are 
exaggerated to more than a hundred thousand, but proba¬ 
bly half that number would be nearer the truth. It is ludi¬ 
crous to behold this power exacting tribute from the mari¬ 
time states of Christendom, while two ships of war main¬ 
tained at the general expense, might block up the port, 
and extinguish the claims and the piracy. The kingdom 
of Algier chiefly comprises the Numidia and part of the 
Mauritania of the ancients, being bounded on the S. by 
Getulia and the chains of the Atlas, called Lowat and 
Ammer. The productions are in general the same with 
those of Tunis. There are many salt rivers and springs, 
and there is a mountain of salt near the lake, called Marks. 

Morocco , or the ancient Mauritania, consists indeed of 
several small kingdoms, as the old English monarchy was 
composed of the seven kingdoms of the heptarchy; but the 
style of emperor seems to have arisen in the fourteenth 
century, when the sultan of Morocco was for a short time 
sovereign of all the northern states of Africa. The king¬ 
dom of Fez has been united to Morocco, since it first be- 

3 F 


614 MAHOMETAN STATES IN THE NORTH. 


came an independent sovereignty in the thirteenth century. 
In the hands of an industrious people the kingdom of Mo¬ 
rocco might still be of considerable importance; but, from 
ignorance and want of policy, the western harbours are, 
by Mr. Lempriere’s report, blocked up with sand; so that 
Morocco may be effaced from the list of maritime powers 
or pirates.—In the summer months the heat is tempered 
by breezes from Mount Atlas, always clothed with snow. 

The Moors of the towns are somewhat civilized, particu¬ 
larly the mercantile class, and the wandering Arabs hos¬ 
pitable, but the Brebes or Brebers, who gave name to 
Barbary, are a fierce and obstinate race of the ancient na¬ 
tives.—The universal food is coscosu , consisting of bits of 
paste about the size of rice crumbled into an earthen co¬ 
lander, and cooked by the steam of boiled meat and ve¬ 
getables, which are all served up together in an earthen 
dish, with butter and spices. This stew in which nothing 
is lost, even the steam being received by the paste, is the 
favourite meal of the peasant and the monarch.—The do¬ 
mestic animals are much the same as those of Europe, 
except the camel; and dromedaries of great swiftness are 
procured from Guinea. The oxen and sheep are small 
but well flavoured; fowls and pigeons plentiful, but ducks 
rare, and geese and turkeys unknown. There is plenty 
of game; and storks are common, being free from mo¬ 
lestation.-The city of Morocco is situated in a fertile 

plain, variegated with clumps of palm trees and shrubs, 
and watered by several lucid streams from the Atlas: the 
extent is considerable, surrounded by very strong walls 
of tabby , a mixture of stone and mortar which becomes 
as hard as a rock. The chief buildings are the royal pal¬ 
ace and f he mosks; and there is a considerable Jewry or 
quarter inhabited by Jews. The palace consists of detach¬ 
ed pavilions, as common in the east; and even the mosks 
are squares with porticoes, like that of Mecca, the cli¬ 
mate not requiring a covered edifice like our churches, 
or the Turkish mosks, often originally Christian edifices— 
The dress of the Moors is rather singular; and the ladies 
not only paint their cheeks and chins with deep red, but 
make a long black mark on their forehead, another on 
the tip of the nose, and several on the cheeks. The wo¬ 
men of the haram are ignorant and childish, their employ¬ 
ments being chatting in circles and eating coscosu. 



MAHOMETAN STATES IN THE NORTH. 615 


Vegetable and Animal, Productions. The 
territory now occupied by the Barbary or piratical states, 
extending from the frontiers of Egypt to the Atlantic ocean 
in one direction, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the 
Great Desart in the other, includes a tract of country pro¬ 
verbial in better times for its never failing fertility.- 

The soil partaking of the general character of Africa is 
light and sandy with intervening rocks, though the vales 
of Mount Atlas, and of the small streams that descend 
into the Mediterranean are overspread with a deep rich 
well-watered mould.-The dry and rocky intervals be¬ 

tween the valleys of the interior, bear a near resemblance 
to the heaths of Spain; like these they abound in scat¬ 
tered groves of cork trees and ever-green oaks, beneath 
whose shade the sage, the lavender, and other aromatic 

plants are found abundantly, and in high perfection.- 

The valleys and glens are profuse of beauty and fragrance; 
besides the bay, the myrtle, the pomegranate, the olive, 
the jasmine, and oleander, which are common both to 
Africa and the south of Europe, we find here, in a truly 
wild state, the Aleppo pine, the red juniper, the date- 
palm, the pistachia, the orange, and, superior even to the 
orange blossom in odour, the white musk rose. 





THE WESTERN COAST. 


Jalofs , FoulahS) and other Tribes.—Benin.—Loango.—Congo* 

ON this side of Africa, so far as hitherto explored, are 
innumerable tribes, as little meriting particular description 
as those of America. The Jalofs or Yolofs and Foulahs, 
are the chief races on the rivers Senegal and Gambia; 
while Guinea, divided into the Grain or more properly 
Windward coast, Ivory coast, and Gold coast, chiefly sup¬ 
plies slaves, a trade which commenced in 1517 by a patent 
irom the emperor Charles V. obtained at the instance of 
Las Casas, the noted protector of the American savages. 
The settlements in Guinea are chiefly Portuguese; and the 
slaves from the river Senegal are called Mandingos, from 
an inland country of that name; while those from the gold 
coast are called Koromantees; and those towards Benin 
Eboes. For these slaves British goods have been exported 
to the annual value of 800,000/.-The forts and facto¬ 

ries belonging to Europeans are about forty; 15 Dutch, 
14 English, 4 Portuguese, 4 Danish, 3 French. 

The countries of Benin and Calabar, which seem to af¬ 
ford the easiest access towards the interior, are followed by 
other savage tribes.-The kingdoms of Congo and An¬ 
gola are celebrated in Portuguese narrations_To the 

south of these there is deep obscurity till we arrive at the 
nations or tribes called Great and Little Nemakas, and 
KatTers or Koussis, on the north of the European colony 
of the Cape of Good Hope. 







THE WESTERN COAST. 


617 


The repeated description of the manners of negro tribes 
would little interest the reader, and only a few peculiarities 
shall be remarked. The Yalofs are an active and warlike 

race, and esteemed the most handsome of the negroes.- 

The Mandingos are widely diffused, and of a mild and 
sociable disposition. They wear cotton frocks of their own 
manufacture; but their hats and furniture are of the sim¬ 
plest kind.-The Foulahs, near the river Gambia, are 

chiefly of a tawney complexion, with silky hair and pleas¬ 
ing features, being probably tribes that fled from Mauret¬ 
ania. The Foulahs of Guinea are of a very different de¬ 
scription, and the identity of name ought to have been 

avoided.-Teembo, the capital of the latter, contains 

about 7000 inhabitants; and there are iron mines worked 
by women, besides some manufactures in silver, wood, and 

leather.-These Foulahs, it is said, can bring into the 

field not less than 16,000 cavalry; and being surrounded 
by twenty-four Pagan nations or tribes, these Mahometans 
never hesitate to make war for the sake of procuring 

slaves.-To the west of these Foulahs is the English 

settlement of Sierra Leone, formed in 1787, for the be¬ 
nevolent purpose of promoting African civilization. 

The kingdom of Benin is asserted to be very consider¬ 
able. The inhabitants are said to acknowledge a supreme 
benevolent deity, whose worship they deem superfluous, as 
he can neither be influenced, enraged, nor appeased; but 
they offer sacrifices to inferior and malignant spirits, in 
order to soothe their enmity. 

Loango is a country of no small extent, on the N. of 
Congo. The people are industrious, as there are weavers, 
smiths, potters, carpenters, and makers of canoes, caps, 
and beads. The exports are elephant’s teeth, copper, tin, 
lead, iron. The common people are held in a kind of 
slavery, but many migrate. Even the mountains are of 
mere clay, without rock or stone: and the rivers do not 
increase in the rainy season. The soil seems to be wholly 
a compact clay, which sometimes splits into vast abysses. 
Vegetation however flourishes; and among the trees are 
the cocoa, banana, orange, lemon, pimento, with the cot¬ 
ton shrubs, and sugar-cane. The palm wine, a favourite 
African beverage, is procured by piercing the tree where 
the fruit begins to swell from the trunk. 

3 f 2 







618 


THE WESTERN COAST. 


In Congo, October may be called the spring month, but 
heavy rains continue for two or three months. About the 
end of January is one harvest; and in March more gentle 
rains commence and continue till May, when there is a 
second dry season or harvest; their nominal winter begin¬ 
ning in July.—The houses are round thatched hovels, even 
in the chief city called St. Salvador by the Portuguese.—— 
The Congoese have the negro colour without the features, 
which rather resemble the European; hair sometimes of a 
deep reddish brown, and eyes of a dark green or sea colour. 
Once a year the graves are opened, and the bodies or bones 
decorated. This custom seems peculiar to Africa and 

America.-Congo produces millet, maize, and excel- 

lent fruits; with the sugar-cane, and varieties of the palm. 

V egetable Productions. This coast appears 
in general to be sufficiently well watered, and accordingly 
bears a striking resemblance in its vegetable productions to 
the opposite shore of the American continent. The usual 
plants found in the tropical climates are found here in per¬ 
fection and in great abundance. The low shores of the 
rivers, as far as the tide reaches, are bordered with man¬ 
groves and bamboos: the luxuriant Guinea grass, the sugar 
cane, ginger, turmeric, and cocoa-nut, with various other 
species of palms, root themselves in the moist deep soils. 
Indigo and cotton of a superior quality are met with, both 
wild and cultivated. The sweet cassava, the Guinea pep¬ 
per, the yam, sweet potatoe, rice, maize, gourds and 
melons of all kinds, are the principal food of the inhabi¬ 
tants, and probably are indigenous. 




COLONY 


OF THE 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 


THIS territory, upon the recent English conquest, was 
found to be of more considerable extent than had been 
supposed, being 550 English miles in length, and 233 in 
breadth, comprehending an area of 120,150 square miles. 
1 he white inhabitants, exclusive of Cape Town, do not 

exceed 15,000, and the whole may be about 20,000._ 

The Dutch settlement was formed in 1660.-To the S. 

E. ol Cape Town are some small vineyards, which yield 
the noted wine called Constantia; and even in remote dis¬ 
tricts there are plantations of various kinds; but large 
tracts are irrecoverably barren, consisting of ranges of 
mountains, and level plains of hard clay sprinkled with 

sand, commonly called karroos -The country is more 

fertile towards the Indian ocean than towards the Atlan¬ 
tic, a character which seems to pervade Africa, as on the 

east is Abyssinia, while on the west is the Zaara._The 

chief resorts of trading vessels are False Bay on the S. 

and Table Bay on the N. which opens to Cape Town._ 

There are some wolves and hyenas, and various kinds of 
antelopes; and among birds, eagles, vultures, kites, crows, 
turtle doves, Stc. more inland are all the wild and fero¬ 
cious animals of Africa, and hippopotami abound in the 
rivers. 








620 COLONY OF THE C. OF GOOD HOPE. 


Vegetable and Animal Productions. The 
botany of southern Africa is more rich and peculiar than 
that of any other country, and most of the singular and 
beautiful inhabitants of our stoves and green houses have 
been hence procured. The class of bulbous-rooted plants 
alone might be selected, if we had room for the enume¬ 
ration, as peculiarly characteristic of the Cape, for no 
where else are they found so abundant, so various, or so 
splendid, while such of them as assume the height and 
character of trees, mixed with the weeping willow and 
minosae of various kinds, overspread the banks of the 
temporary torrents. The forests furnish the iron wood, 
the African oak, the Hassagia wood, the yellow wood, a 
few species of Zamia or Sago palm, the scarlet flowered 
guaiacum, and the incomparably splendid strelitsia regin*. 


THE EASTERN COAST. 


jYatal,——Delagoa»—JMocaranga,—*Mozambic ) isfc» — Adel, 

ON leaving the colonial possessions, in this direction, 
first appear the Kaffers, or properly Koussis, and the 
Tambookies, beyond whom there is deep obscurity. 
What is called the coast of Natal is followed by the bay 
of Delagoa. 

One of the chief rivers which enters this bay is the Ma- 
sumo: and the natives on the northern and southern banks 
follow distinct customs, the men on the former wearing 
singular helmets of straw. On the southern side are four¬ 
teen chiefs, subject to a king called Capelleh, whose do¬ 
minion extend about 200 miles inland, and about 100 on 
the sea shore. Cattle and poultry are abundant, and may 
be purchased for a trifle; the favourite articles being blue 
linens, old clothes, brass rings, copper wire, large glass 
beads, tobacco, pipes, 8cc. The fish are numerous and 

excellent, and turtle is taken on Deer Island.-The soil 

is a rich black mould, sown with rice or maize in Decem¬ 
ber or January; the dry season lasting from April till Oc¬ 
tober. There are many fruit trees and useful plants, par¬ 
ticularly the sugar-cane; but no horses, asses, nor buffa¬ 
loes.—The wild animals are the tiger, rhinoceros, ante¬ 
lope, hare, rabbit, wild hog, with guinea hens, partridges, 
quails, wild geese, ducks, and some small singing birds— 
The natives are Kaffers, that is Pagans, of a bright black 
colour, tall and stout; they go nearly naked, and are ta- 
tooed. 

The most civilized and powerful kingdom seems to be 
that of Mocaranga, absurdly called Monomotapa. The 
soil of this country is said to be fertile, though the plains 





622 


THE EASTERN COAST. 


be exposed to great heat.—The people are almost naked, 
and, like those of the western coast, superstitiously afraid 
of magical charms. According to the doubtful accounts 
of this country, the king, on days of ceremony, wears a 
little spade hanging by his side, as an emblem of cultiva¬ 
tion.—The children of the great are retained at court as 
hostages; and the king sends annually an officer to the 
provinces; when the people testify their fidelity by extin¬ 
guishing their fires, and kindling others from the officer’s 
torch.—The emperor’s guard is said to consist of women 
lightly armed.—The Portuguese have here two fortresses, 
and another station near the mountains of Fura, which 
are said to abound in gold. 

The kingdom of Mozambique or Mozambico is consi¬ 
dered as subject to the Portuguese, who had a consi¬ 
derable town of the same name, situated in an isle, the 
governor being dependent on the viceroy of Goa.—Zan- 
guebar is said to be a marshy and unhealthy country, but 
abundant in elephants: it is chiefly inhabited by the Mo- 
cuas, partly Pagans, partly Mahometans.—The little king¬ 
dom of Quiloa is also dependent on the Portuguese, with 
that of Mombaza, from which they were expelled in 1631, 
but regained their possessions in 1729.-Melinda, a Ma¬ 

hometan state, is also partly dependent on the Portuguese, 

who have a fortress in the city, and several churches.- 

The coast of Ajan is chiefly Mahometan, and carries on 

a considerable trade in ivory, ambergris, and gold.- 

Brava, a little aristocracy, pays tribute to the Portuguese, 
who have not been able to encroach on Magadasho, or on 
the kingdom of Adel, which last was dependent on Abys¬ 
sinia, and is said to be a fertile country. This state was 
founded by a Mahometan prince at the beginning of the 
sixteenth century, the capital being Auzagurel, standing 
on an eminence near the river Awast, which comes from 
Abyssinia: and Zeila, on the Arabian gulf, is a consider- 
able port. 



THE ISLE OF MADAGASCAR. 


THIS noble island is about 340 g. miles in length, by 
about 220 of medial breadth. It seems to have been un¬ 
known to the ancients; for the first certain mention of 
Madagascar is by Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century. 
At this time it would seem that the Mahometan religion 
had made some progress there. 

Rodion informs us that this island may contain about two 
hundred millions of acres of excellent land, watered by 
livers and rivulets, from a long chain of mountains pas¬ 
sing in the direction of the island, and separating the east¬ 
ern from the western coast. The scenery is diversified 
with precipices, cataracts, and immense forests. The flax, 
from the description, seems to approach that of New Zea¬ 
land; other products are, sugar canes, cocoa nuts, bana¬ 
nas, tobacco, indigo, pepper, gum lacca, benzoin, amber, 
ambergris, &c. and the variety of valuable plants is pro¬ 
digious.—Cattle, buffaloes, and sheep abound. There are 
no lions, tigers, elephants, nor horses.—Many of the most 
valuable minerals occur, among which are beds of pure 
rock crystal, gold ore, with topazes, sapphires, emeralds, 
and spotted jaspers, commonly called blood stones.—The 
natives are rather above the middle stature, and are of 
various origins; some being negroes, others tawney or 
copper coloured; but the complexion of the greater part 

is olive-The French settlement of Port Dauphin is in 

the S. E. extremity of the island. Almost all the villages 
are built upon eminences, and surrounded by two rows of 
strong palisades, within which there is a parapet of earth, 
four feet in height; and sometimes there is a ditch, ten feet 





624 


MADAGASCAR. 


in breadth and six in depth.—Their chiefs are only known 
by their red caps, worn by the common Moors. Their 
authority is inconsiderable, yet they are sometimes re¬ 
garded as proprietors of the land, and receive a small 
quit-rent.—-Writing is not unknown, and there are some 
historical books in their native tongues, with Arabic cha¬ 
racters.-The paper is made of papyrus, and the ink is 

the decoction of a certain bark.-The whole island is 

said to have been conquered by the Arabs about three 
hundred years ago: but of Mahometanism there are only 
faint traces.—The native blacks are classed as descend¬ 
ants of the ancient chiefs, and preserve their right of kil¬ 
ling animals, and regard the profession of a butcher as the 
most honourable. The next class cannot kill animals, but 
have some privileges unknown to the Ontzoa, or third 
cast. The Ondeves, or lost men , are slaves by extrac¬ 
tion.-Polygamy seems confined to the chiefs: the wo¬ 

men are lively and cheerful, and form the chief delight of 
their husbands. 

Of esculent plants growing here there are the rice, ban¬ 
ana, yam, nymphea lotos, several kinds of kidney bean, 
gourds, and water melons, and cocoa nuts. The fruits are 
pine apples, tamarinds, oranges, and pomegranates. The 
spices and other condiments are common, and betel pep¬ 
per, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon, and sugar. The In¬ 
dian fig grows here, as also does the ebony, the bamboo, 
the cotton, and indigo. 




THE 


SMALLER AFRICAN ISLANDS. 


Pemba. — Comoro.—Mauritius and Bourbon. — Kerguelen's 

Land. — St. Helena. — Ascension .— C’a/ie Verd Islands. _ 

Canaries. — Madeira. 


THE islands of Pemba, Zanzibar, and Monfia, are op¬ 
posite to the coast of Zanguebar. Pemba is said to be 
about 100 miles in circumference, governed by a king, 
who pays tribute to Portugal: to which power the two 
others are said to be subservient. 

I he islands of Comoro are four in number. That of 
Anzoan has a convenient harbour, sometimes visited by 
ships passing to India. These isles are governed by Pagan 
or Mahometan chieftains, tributary to the Portuguese; and 
are reported to be very fertile in rice, oranges, lemons, 
sugar, cocoa, and ginger; the natives carrying on some 
trade with the Portuguese of Mozambico. 

To the east of Madagascar are the Islands of Mauritius 
or France, and Bourbon, French settlements well known 
in the commercial world. The Isle ot France has a tolera¬ 
ble port, the centre of the oriental force and commerce of 
the French. The Isle of Bourbon, colonized in 1654, is 
about fifty leagues in circumference, of a circular form, ris¬ 
ing to high mountains in the centre; and there is a noted 
volcano, difficult of access, the eruptions of which are fre¬ 
quent.—Mauritius, or the Isle of France, was first posses¬ 
sed by the Dutch, who abandoned it in 1712, and the French 
settlement began to acquire some stability under Bourdon- 
nais in 1734. There are two crops every year of wheat and 
Indian corn, but manioc w r as the food of the negroes.—The 
Isle of Bourbon produces sugar canes, and in both the cat- 

3 G 




626 


SMALLER AFRICAN ISLANDS. 


tie are numerous.—In 1766 M. Poivre, author of the Voy¬ 
age of a Philosopher, was governor of these isles, and the 
advantages of appointing men of science to such stations 
was evident from his introduction of the bread-fruit tree, 
and also of the nutmeg and cinnamon. 

Far to the south lies Kerguelen’s Land, so called from 
a recent French navigator. It is described in the last voy¬ 
age of Cook, to which the curious reader is referred. 

1 he south is here the region of cold and desolation, and 
on proceeding towards the north the scene improves.—St. 
lJelena is a beautiful island, possessed by about three hun¬ 
dred English families, the governor residing in a fort with 

a small garrison.-There is a village, with a church, in 

Chapel valley.—The planters are occupied with their cat¬ 
tle, hogs, and poultry; but when East India ships arrive 
each house becomes a little tavern.—This interesting isle 
v as discovered bv the Portuguese, who stocked it with 
animals and fruit trees; but there was no settlement when 
the English took possession about the year 1600.—There 
is only one harbour, which is difficult of access.—The isle 
of Ascension, between Africa and Brazil, was discovered 
in 1503; and has an excellent harbour,frequented by home¬ 
ward bound ships, who here find turtle and sea-fowl. 

On approaching the African shore to the north of Con¬ 
go, and passing St. Matthew, where the Portuguese have 
a small settlement, first appears the isle of Annabon, fol¬ 
lowed by St. Thomas, Prince’s Isle, and that of Fernando 
Po. The Isle of St. Thomas was discovered and settled 
by the Portuguese about 1460. The soil is remarkably 
strong and fertile, domestic animals abound, and the pro¬ 
duce of sugar is prodigious. There is a bishop, who is a 
suffragan of Lisbon. The town Pavoacan is on the east¬ 
ern side of the island. Prince’s Island is also fertile, with 
a good harbour, and a town of about two hundred houses 
on the northern shore; it is inhabited by about forty Por¬ 
tuguese and 3000 negro slaves. 

The Cape Verd isles were discovered by the Portuguese 
in 1446. They are ten in number, the two largest being 
that of St. Jago in the S. E. and St. Anthony in the N. W. 
The air is hot and unhealthy, and most of the isles stony 
and barren; the chief trade being in salt and goat skins. 
Some produce rice, maize, bananas, lemons, oranges, ci¬ 
trons, with cotton and sugar canes; and there is abundance 


SMALLER AFRICAN ISLANDS. 627 

ot poultry. Ribira, the chief town and bishopric, is in St. 
Jago. 

f ai to the north the Canary Islands, or Fortunate Islands 
or the ancients, form an interesting range from west to 
east. Ihey were conquered by the French in 1402 under 
the celebrated Jean de Bethencourt, afterwards styled king 

, Canaries. The isle strictly called Canary is smaller 
t lan Juerta Ventura and Tenerif. The latter is the most 
lemaikable on account of its peak, which was found 1742 
torses above the level of the sea, or about 5000 feet lower 
than Mont Blanc. It is said to be visible at the distance 
oi eighty leagues. This celebrated mountain cannot be as¬ 
cended, on account of the snows, except from the middle of 
Jul) to the end of August. The summit can only be ascended 
by a zig-zag path on the south. 1 he cold is extreme; the 
nails become black, and the hands and feet swell. In the 
middle of the summit is a deep reversed cone, called the 
cauldion, about fifty fathoms in diameter. The perpendi¬ 
cular depth being about 150 feet. Around are many little 
mouths, fiom one to four inches in diameter. The largest 
hole, about eight inches in diameter, is within the crater, 
exhaling with a sound like the bellowing of a bull, and the 
smoke is so hot as instantly to burn the hair of the hand. 

I he chief trees are wild olives, cypresses, laurels, and 
pines of two kinds. The product of these islands is wheat 
barley, and oats; and the excellent Canary wine is chiefly 
from Fenerif and Palma, which also yield considerable 
quantities of sugar; while Gomera is noted for silk; and 
the tree yielding the gum called dragon’s blood is not un¬ 
common. 1 hey have most European domestic animals. 
The capital of the seven inhabited islands is the town of 
Palma, in the Isle of Canary; but Tenerif is the most po¬ 
pulous. The inhabitants are computed at 140,000; of 
whom 64,000 belong to Tenerif, in which isle the gover¬ 
nor usually resides, though the royal audience, of which 
he is president, be established at the capital of Canary. 
The wine is chiefly exported by the English. Filtering 
stones, from the Isle of Canary, and from Fuerta Ventura, 
also form an article of traffic. 

The Island of Madeira is chiefly remarkable for excellent 
wines, being about 18 leagues in length by seven in breadth. 
The capital, Funchal, the residence of the governor and bi¬ 
shop, is in a fertile vale, on the south side of the isle, a 


628 


SMALLER AFRICAN ISLANDS. 


handsome town, with about 11,000 inhabitants, there be¬ 
ing about 64,000 in the whole island. The chief trade is 
with the English, who export about ten or twelve thousand 
pipes of wine annually: the remainder about seven thou¬ 
sand, being consumed in the country. The richest mer¬ 
chants are English or Irish Catholics. 

At the distance of about nine degrees, or 540 g. miles, 
to the N. W. are the islands of Azores, of which the chief 
are St. Michel, Tercera, Pico or the Peak, and Fayal, with 
two smaller ones far in the west called Florez and Corvo. 
These isles were all discovered by the Portuguese before 
1449, who gave them the name from the number of gos¬ 
hawks, which they observed here remarkably tame, there 
being neither man nor quadruped.-In 1466 the Portu¬ 

guese king gave them to his sister the Dutchess of Bur¬ 
gundy. They were colonized by Flemings and Germans. 
These islesare generally mountainous, and exposed tc earth¬ 
quakes and violent winds; yet they produce wheat, wine, 

fruits, and abundance of woad.-The chief island is 

Tercera, and the capital town Angra. 

The harbour of Fayal presents a beautiful amphitheatre 
clohted with trees; the town has 5000 inhabitants, but may 
be said to consist chiefly of convents. The climate and 
soil are excellent, there being no occasion for fire in the 
winter. The trees are walnuts, chesnuts, white poplars, 
and particularly the arbutus or strawberry tree, the name 
for Fayal in the Portuguese implying a strawberry. 



finis. 






































